Cover Page
Pat
Title Page
Copyright Page
Brief Contents
Contents
PREFACE
OVERVIEW OF TEXT
ORGANIZATION OF TEXT
WRITING STYLE
PEDAGOGICAL AIDS
NEW TO THIS EDITION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
TO CONTACT US
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Chapter 1: Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Method
Chapter Overview
1.1: Introduction to Research Methodology
Why Take A Research Methods Course?
Other Reasons for Taking a Research Methods Course
1.2: Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge
The Method of Tenacity
The Method of Intuition
The Method of Authority
The Rational Method
The Empirical Method
Summary
1.3: The Scientific Method
The Steps of the Scientifi c Method
Other Elements of the Scientific Method
Science versus Pseudoscience
1.4: The Research Process
Step 1: Find a Research Idea: Select a Topic and Search the Literature to Find an Unanswered Question
Step 2: Form a Hypothesis and a Prediction
Step 3: Determine How You Will Defi ne and Measure Your Variables
Step 4: Identify and Select the Participants or Subjects for the Study
Step 5: Select a Research Strategy
Step 6: Select a Research Design
Step 7: Conduct the Study
Step 8: Evaluate the Data
Step 9: Report the Results
Step 10: Refine or Reformulate Your Research Idea
Chapter Summary
Key Words
Exercises
Learning Activities
Web Resources
Chapter 2: Research Ideas
Chapter Overview
2.1: Getting Started
Pick a Topic in Which You Are Interested
Do Your Homework
Keep an Open Mind
Focus, Focus, Focus
Take One Step at a Time
2.2: Finding a General Topic Area
Common Sources of Research Topics
Common Mistakes in Choosing a Research Topic
2.3: Finding and Using Background Literature
Primary and Secondary Sources
The Purpose of a Literature Search
2.4: Conducting a Literature Search
Starting Points
Using Online Databases
Using PsycINFO
Beginning a Literature Search
The Process of Conducting a LiteratureSearch
Searching Forward
Taking Notes
2.5: Finding an Idea for a Research Study and Converting the Idea into a Hypothesis and a Prediction
Find Suggestions for Future Research
Modify or Extend an Existing StudyโCritical Reading
Combine or Contrast Existing Results
Converting a Research Idea into a Hypothesis and Prediction
2.6: Reading and Understanding a Research Article
Chapter Summary
Key Words
Exercises
Learning Activities
Web Resources
Chapter 3: Defining and Measuring Variables
Chapter Overview
3.1: An Overview of Measurement
3.2: Constructs and Operational Definitions
Theories and Constructs
Operational Definitions
Limitations of Operational Definitions
Using Operational Definitions
3.3: Validity and Reliability of Measurement
Validity of Measurement
Reliability of Measurement
The Relationship Between Reliability and Validity
3.4: Scales of Measurement
The Nominal Scale
The Ordinal Scale
Interval and Ratio Scales
Selecting a Scale of Measurement
3.5: Modalities of Measurement
Self-Report Measures
Physiological Measures
Behavioral Measures
3.6: Other Aspects of Measurement
Multiple Measures
Sensitivity and Range Effects
Artifacts: Experimental Bias and Participant Reactivity
Selecting a Measurement Procedure
Chapter Summary
Key Words
Exercises
Learning Activities
Web Resources
Chapter 4: Ethics in Research
Chapter Overview
4.1: Introduction
Ethical Concerns Throughout the Research Process
The Basic Categories of Ethical Responsibility
4.2:Ethical Issues and Human Participants in Research
Historical Highlights of Treatment of Human Participants
American Psychological Association Guidelines
The Institutional Review Board
4.3: Ethical Issues and Nonhuman Subjects in Research
Historical Highlights of Treatment of Nonhuman Subjects
American Psychological Association Guidelines
The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee
4.4: Ethical Issues and Scientific Integrity
Fraud in Science
Plagiarism
Chapter Summary
Key Words
Exercises
Learning Activities
Web Resources
Chapter 5: Selecting Research Participants
Chapter Overview
5.1: Introduction
Populations and Samples
Representative Samples
Sample Size
Sampling Basics
5.2: Probability Sampling Methods
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Combined-Strategy Sampling
A Summary of Probability Sampling Methods
5.3: Nonprobability Sampling Methods
Convenience Sampling
Quota Sampling
Chapter Summary
Key Words
Exercises
Learning Activities
Web Resources
Chapter 6: Research Strategies and Validity
Chapter Overview
6.1: Quantitative and Qualitative Research
6.2: Strategies for Quantitative Research
The Descriptive Research Strategy
Relationships Between Variables
The Correlational Research Strategy: Measuring Two Variables for Each Individual
Comparing Two or More Sets of Scores: The Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, and Nonexperimental Research Strategies
The Experimental Research Strategy
The Quasi-Experimental Research Strategy
The Non experimental Research Strategy
Research Strategy Summary
Data Structures and Statistical Analysis
Summary
6.3: Internal and External Validity
External Validity
Internal Validity
Validity and the Quality of a Research Strategy
6.4: Threats to External Validity
Category 1: Generalizing Across Participants or Subjects
Category 2: Generalizing Across Features of a Study
Category 3: Generalizing Across Features of the Measures
6.5: Threats to Internal Validity
Extraneous Variables
Confounding Variables
Extraneous Variables, Confounding Variables, and Internal Validity
Environmental Variables: General Threats to Internal Validity for All Studies
Individual Differences: Threats to Internal Validity for Studies Comparing Different Groups
Time-Related Variables: Threats to Internal Validity for Studies Comparing One Group over Time
6.6: More About Internal and External Validity
Balancing Internal and External Validity
Artifacts: Threats to Both Internal and External Validity
Exaggerated Variables
Validity and Individual Research Strategies
6.7: Research Strategies, Research Designs, and Research Procedures
Research Strategies
Research Designs
Research Procedures
Chapter Summary
Key Words
Exercises
Learning Activities
Web Resources
Chapter 7: The Experimental Research Strategy
Chapter Overview
7.1: Cause-and-Effect Relationships
Terminology for the Experimental Research Strategy
Causation and the Third-Variable Problem
Causation and the Directionality Problem
Controlling Nature
7.2: Distinguishing Elements of an Experiment
Manipulation
Control
7.3: Dealing with Extraneous Variables
Control by Holding Constant or Matching
Control by Randomization
Comparing Methods of Control
Advantages and Disadvantages of Control Methods
7.4: Control Groups
No-Treatment Control Groups
Placebo Control Groups
7.5: Manipulation Checks
7.6: Increasing External Validity: Simulation and Field Studies
Simulation
Field Studies
Advantages and Disadvantages of Simulation and Field Studies
Chapter Summary
Key Words
Exercises
Learning Activities
Web Resources
Chapter 8: Experimental Designs: Between-Subjects Design
Chapter Overview
8.1: Introduction to Between-Subjects Experiments
Review of the Experimental Research Strategy
Characteristics of Between-Subjects Designs
Advantages and Disadvantages of Between-Subjects Designs
8.2: Individual Differences Confounding Variables
Other Confounding Variables
Equivalent Groups
8.3: Limiting Confounding by Individual Differences
Random Assignment (Randomization)
Matching Groups (Matched Assignment)
Holding Values Constantor Restricting Range of Variability
Summary and Recommendations
8.4: Individual Differences and Variability
Differences Between Treatments and Variance Within Treatments
Minimizing Variance Within Treatments
Summary and Recommendations
8.5: Other Threats to Internal Validity of Between-Subjects Designs
Differential Attrition
Communication Between Groups
8.6: Applications and Statistical Analyses of Between-Subjects Designs
Two-Group Mean Difference
Comparing Means for More Than Two Groups
Comparing Proportions for Two or More Groups
Chapter Summary
Key Words
Exercises
Learning Activities
Web Resources
Chapter 9: Experimental Designs: Within-Subjects Design
Chapter Overview
9.1: Introduction to Within-Subjects Experiments
Characteristics of Within-Subjects Designs
Advantages of Within-Subjects Designs
Disadvantages of Within-Subjects Designs
9.2: Threats to Internal Validity for Within-Subjects Designs
Separating Time-Related Factors and Order Effects
Order Effects as a Confounding Variable
9.3: Dealing with Time-Related Threats and Order Effects
Controlling Time
Switch to a Between-Subjects Design
Counterbalancing: Matching Treatments with Respect toTime
Limitations of Counter balancing
9.4: Applications and Statistical Analyses of Within-Subjects Designs
Two-Treatment Designs
Multiple-Treatment Designs
9.5: Comparing Within-Subjects and Between-Subjects Designs
Matched-Subject Designs
Chapter Summary
Key Words
Exercises
Learning Activities
Web Resources
Chapter 10: The Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Strategies: Nonequivalent Group, PreโPost, and Developmental Designs
Chapter Overview
10.1: Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Research Strategies
The Structure of Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs
10.2: Between-Subjects Nonexperimentaland Quasi-Experimental Designs: Nonequivalent Group Designs
Threats to Internal Validity for Nonequivalent Group Desi
The Differential Research Design
The Posttest-Only Nonequivalent Control Group Design
The PretestโPosttest Nonequivalent Control Group Design
10.3: Within-Subjects Non experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs:PreโPost Designs
Threats to Internal Validity for PreโPost Designs
The One-Group PretestโPosttest Design
The Time-Series Design
Single-Case Applications of Time-Series Designs
10.4: Developmental Research Designs
The Cross-Sectional Developmental Research Design
The Longitudinal Developmental Research Design
10.5: Terminology in Nonexperimental, Quasi-experimental, and Developmental Designs
Chapter Summary
Key Words
Exercises
Learning Activities
Web Resources
Chapter 11: Factorial Designs
Chapter Overview
11.1: Introduction to Factorial Designs
Experimental Factorial Designs
11.2: Main Effects and Interactions
Identifying Interactions
11.3: More About Interactions
Alternative Definitions of anInteraction
Interpreting Main Effects and Interactions
Independence of Main Effects and Interactions
11.4: Types of Factorial Designs
Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Designs
Experimental and Non experimentalor Quasi-Experimental Research Strategies
PretestโPosttest Control Group Designs
Higher-Order Factorial Designs
11.5: Applications of Factorial Designs
Expanding and Replicating a Previous Study
Reducing Variance in Between-Subjects Designs
Evaluating Order Effects in Within-Subjects Designs
Chapter Summary
Key Words
Exercises
Learning Activities
Web Resources
Chapter 12: The Correlational Research Strategy
Chapter Overview
12.1: An Introduction to Correlational Research
12.2: The Data for a Correlational Study
Measuring Relationships
Evaluating Relationships for Non-numerical Scores
Comparing Correlational, Experimental, and Differential Research
12.3: Applications of the Correlational Strategy
Prediction
Reliability and Validity
Evaluating Theories
Interpreting a Correlation
12.4: Strengths and Weaknesses of the Correlational Research Strategy
12.5: Relationships with More than Two Variables
Chapter Summary
Key Words
Exercises
Learning Activities
Web Resources
Chapter 13: The Descriptive Research Strategy
Chapter Overview
13.1: An Introduction to Descriptive Research
13.2: The Observational Research Design
Behavioral Observation
Content Analysis and Archival Research
Types of Observation and Examples
Strengths and Weaknesses of Observational Research Designs
13.3: The Survey Research Design
Types of Questions
Constructing a Survey
Selecting Relevant and Representative Individuals
Administering a Survey
Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research
13.4: The Case Study Design
Applications of the Case Study Design
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Case Study Design
Chapter Summary
Key Words
Exercises
Learning Activities
Web Resources
Chapter 14: Single-Subject Research Designs
Chapter Overview
14.1: Introduction
Evaluating the Results from a Single-Subject Study
14.2: Phases and Phase Changes
Level, Trend, and Stability
Changing Phases
Visual Inspection Techniques
14.3: The ABAB Reversal Design
Limitations of the ABAB Design
Variations on the ABAB Design: Creating More Complex Phase-Change Designs
14.4: Multiple-Baseline Designs
Rationale for the Multiple-Baseline Design
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Multiple-Baseline Design
14.5: Other Single-Subject Designs
Dismantling, or Component-Analysis, Design
The Changing-Criterion Design
The Alternating-Treatments Design
14.6: General Strengths and Weaknesses of Single-Subject Designs
Advantages of Single-Subject Designs
Disadvantages of Single-Subject Designs
Chapter Summary
Key Words
Exercises
Learning Activities
Web Resources
Chapter 15: Statistical Evaluationof Data
Chapter Overview
15.1: The Role of Statistics in the Research Process
Planning Ahead
Statistics Terminology
15.2: Descriptive Statistics
Frequency Distributions
Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of Variability
Describing Interval and Ratio Data (Numerical Scores)
Describing Non-numerical Data from Nominal and Ordinal Scales of Measurement
Using Graphs to Summarize Data
Correlations
Regression
Multiple Regression
15.3: Inferential Statistics
Hypothesis Tests
Reporting Results from a Hypothesis Test
Errors in Hypothesis Testing
Factors that Influence the Outcome ofa Hypothesis Test
Supplementing Hypothesis Tests with Measures of Effect Size
15.4: Examples of Hypothesis Tests
Comparing Groups of Scores: Statistical Tests for the Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, and Nonexperimental Research Strategies
Tests for Mean Differences
Comparing Proportions
Evaluating Relationships: Statistical Tests for the Correlational Research Strategy
15.5: Special Statistics for Research
The Spearman-Brown Formula
The Kuder-Richardson Formula 20
Cronbachโs Alpha
Cohenโs Kappa
Chapter Summary
Key Words
Exercises
Learning Activities
Web Resources
Chapter 16: Writing an APA-Style Research Report
Chapter Overview
16.1: The Goal of a Research Report
16.2: General APA Guidelines for Writing Style and Format
Some Elements of Writing Style
Guidelines for Typing or Word Processing
Manuscript Pages
16.3: The Elements of an APA-Style Research Report
Title Page
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
References
Tables and Figures
Appendix
Conference Presentations: Papers and Posters
16.4: Submitting a Manuscript for Publication
16.5: Writing a Research Proposal
Why Write a Research Proposal?
How to Write a Research Proposal
Chapter Summary
Key Words
Exercises
Learning Activities
Web Resources
A Random Number Tableand Instruction
B Statistics Demonstrations and Statistical Tables
C Instructions for Using SPSS
D Sample APA-Style Research Report Manuscript for Publication
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