Front Cover
Title Page
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
Note to the Students
1 Curiosity, Creativity, and Commitment
Science
Science Is a Way of Thinking
Critical Thinking 1.1 What Does It Mean to Think Critically
Asking Questions
Historical Lesson 1.1 The Three Princes of Serendip
Science and Art
Historical Lesson 1.2 Leonardo da Vinci
Acquiring Knowledge
Tenacity
Intuition
Authority
Rationalism
Empiricism
Science
Emergence of Science
Early Civilization
Greek Science
Medieval Science
The Scientific Revolution
The Goals of Science
Psychology
The History of Psychology
Women and Minorities in Psychology
Modern Psychology
The Science of Psychology
The Cost of Neglect 1.1 Science and Pseudoscience
Ethical Principles: Responsible Conduct
Student Resource Website
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
2 Research Is a Process of Inquiry
The Scientific Process
Basic Assumptions of Science
Observation and Inference: Facts and Constructs
Inductive and Deductive Thinking
Critical Thinking 2.1 Connecting Ideas to the Real World
Models and Theories in Science
Historical Lesson 2.1 The Wright Brothers as Scientists
Types of Theories
Scientific Models
A Model of the Research Process
Phases of Research
Levels of Constraint
Critical Thinking 2.2 Careful Planning and Detailed Procedures Decrease Biases
Ethical Principles: Developing Guidelines
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
3 The Starting Point: Asking Questions
Asking and Refining Questions
Pursuing Your Personal Interests
Following Up on the Work of Others
Basic, Applied, and Translational Research
Refining Questions for Research
Types of Variables in Research
Classifying Variables Based on Their Characteristics
Classifying Variables Based on Their Use in Research
Critical Thinking 3.1 Causation and Proof
Validity and the Control of Extraneous Variables
Ethical Principles: The Necessity of Informed Consent
Ethical Principles for Human Research
Ethical Principles for Animal Research
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
4 Data and the Nature of Measurement
Measurement
Scales of Measurement
Nominal Scales
Ordinal Scales
Interval Scales
Ratio Scales
Measuring and Manipulating Variables
Measurement Error
Operational Definitions
Evaluating Measures
Reliability
Effective Range
Validity
The Need for Objective Measurement
Critical Thinking 4.1 The Danger of Subjectivity
Ethical Principles: Assuring Honesty in Research
Critical Thinking 4.2 Skepticism and Science
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
5 Statistical Analysis of Data
Individual Differences
Organizing Data
Frequency Distributions
Critical Thinking 5.1 Our Minds Want to Simplify the World
Graphical Representation of Data
Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of Variability
The Cost of Neglect 5.1 Lies, Damn Lies, and Statistics
Understanding the Concept 5.1 Degrees of Freedom
Measures of Relationship
Standard Scores
Statistical Inference
Populations and Samples
The Null Hypothesis
Statistical Decisions and Alpha Levels
Critical Thinking 5.2 Even Statisticians are Not Good with Probability
Inferential Statistics
Testing for Mean Differences
The Power of a Statistical Test
Effect Size
Ethical Principles: Reporting Data Fairly and Accurately
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
6 Field Research: Naturalistic and Case Study Research
The Challenge of Low-Constraint Research
Examples of Naturalistic Observation
Historical Lesson 6.1 Naturalistic Research and Evolution
Examples of Case Study Research
The Value of Low-Constraint Methods
Conditions for Using Low-Constraint Research
Understanding the Concept 6.1 The Therapist as Scientist
Information Gained from Low-Constraint Research
Qualitative Research Methods
Using Low-Constraint Methods
Problem Statements and Research Hypotheses
Making Observations
Sampling of Participants
Sampling of Situations
Sampling of Behaviors
Evaluating and Interpreting Data
Limitations of Low-Constraint Methods
Poor Representativeness
Poor Replicability
Causal Inference and Low-Constraint Research
Limitations of the Observer
Going beyond the Data
Ethical Principles: Confidentiality and Informed Consent
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
7 Correlational and Differential Methods of Research
Defining Correlational and Differential Research Methods
Correlational Research Methods
Differential Research Methods
Critical Thinking 7.1 Confounding in the Real World
Comparing These Methods
When to Use These Methods
Conducting Correlational Research
Problem Statements
Secondary Analyses
Measuring the Variables
Sampling
Analyzing the Data
Interpreting the Correlation
Conducting Differential Research
Problem Statements
Measuring the Variables
Selecting Appropriate Control Groups
Sampling
Analyzing the Data
Interpreting the Data
Go with the Flow 7.1 Determining Statistical Significance
Limitations of Correlational and Differential Research
Problems in Determining Causation
Confounding Variables
Ethical Principles: Ethical Constraints on Experiments
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
8 Hypothesis Testing, Validity, and Threats to Validity
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
9 Controls to Reduce Threats to Validity
General Control Procedures
Preparation of the Setting
Response Measurement
Replication
Critical Thinking 9.1 Some Things are Random
Control over Participant and Experimenter Effects
Single- and Double-Blind Procedures
Automation
Using Objective Measures
Multiple Observers
Understanding the Concept 9.1 Reliable Reliability
Using Deception
Control through Participant Selection and Assignment
Participant Selection
Go with the Flow 9.1 Random Selection
Critical Thinking 9.2 The Challenge of Polling
Participant Assignment
Go with the Flow 9.2 Matched Random Assignment
Advantages of Random Selection and Assignment
Control through Experimental Design
Ethical Principles: Protecting Participants During and After the Study
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
10 Single-Variable, Independent-Groups Designs
Variance
Sources of Variance
Critical Thinking 10.1 Extraneous Variance Is Everywhere
Controlling Variance in Research
Nonexperimental Approaches
Ex Post Facto Studies
Single-Group, Posttest-Only Studies
Critical Thinking 10.2 We are Wired to Draw Conclusions
Single-Group, Pretest-Posttest Studies
Pretest-Posttest, Natural Control Group Studies
Experimental Designs
Randomized, Posttest-Only, Control Group Design
Randomized, Pretest-Posttest, Control Group Design
Multilevel, Completely Randomized, Between-Subjects Design
Pretest-Manipulation Interaction: A Potential Problem
Variations on Experimental Designs
Analyses of Variance
Go with the Flow 10.1 Steps in Computing a One-Way Anova
Understanding the Concept 10.1 Statistical Power
Specific Means Comparisons in ANOVA
Graphing the Data
Ethical Principles: The Ethics of Randomizing
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
11 Correlated-Groups and Single-Subject Designs
Within-Subjects Designs
Using Within-Subjects Designs
Analyzing Data from Within-Subjects Designs
Strengths and Weaknesses of Within-Subjects Designs
Critical Thinking 11.1 Individual Differences
Matched-Subjects Designs
Using Matched-Subjects Designs
Analyzing Data from Matched-Subjects Designs
Strengths and Weaknesses of Matched-Subjects Designs
Single-Subject Experimental Designs
Historical Lesson 11.1 Neuropsychology Cases
ABA Reversal Design
Multiple-Baseline Design
Single-Subject, Randomized, Time-Series Design
Replication in Single-Subject Designs
Ethical Principles: βFirst, Do No Harm!β
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
12 Factorial Designs
Factorial Designs
Main Effects and Interactions
Running the Childrenβs Dark-Fears Study
Critical Thinking 12.1 Thinking in Terms of Interactions
Possible Outcomes of Factorial Designs
Analysis of Variance in Factorial Designs
Variations of Basic Factorial Design
Within-Subjects or Repeated-Measures Factorial
Mixed Designs
Critical Thinking 12.2 Trying to Understand What Participants are Thinking
ANOVA: A Postscript
Analysis of Covariance
Multivariate Analysis of Variance
Ethical Principles: Informed Consent and Children
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
13 A Second Look at Field Research: Field Experiments, Program Evaluation, and Survey Research
Conducting Field Research
Reasons for Doing Field Experiments
Critical Thinking 13.1 When Is It Real?
Difficulties in Field Research
Flexibility in Research
Quasi-Experimental Designs
Nonequivalent Control-Group Designs
Critical Thinking 13.2 Most Data are Not from Designed Studies
Interrupted Time-Series Designs
Program Evaluation Research
Historical Lesson 13.1 From Head Start to Heads Up
Practical Problems in Program Evaluation Research
Issues of Control
Typical Program Evaluation Designs
Program Evaluation Research: An Example
Surveys
Types of Surveys
Steps in Survey Research
Go with the Flow 13.1 Steps in Survey Research
Types of Survey Instruments
Developing the Survey Instrument
Sampling Participants
The Cost of Neglect 13.1 Political Polling and Sampling
Survey Research Design
Ethical Principles: Special Issues in Program Evaluation
Summary
Putting It into Practice
Exercises
14 A Final Note to Students
Appendix A: Using the Student Resource Website
Appendix B: Random Numbers
Appendix C: Answers to Quick-Check Review Questions
Glossary
References
Author Index
Subject Index