In the old Bell Labs, before the antitrust activity and divestiture of the 1980's, telephone equipment design followed a more or less linear path from research to development to field testing to gradual deployment in the network. A number of ลฝ . guiding principles governed the process: a The equipment should last for 40 ลฝ . years. b All components should be backward compatible with existing equipment. ลฝ . c Everything should be reliable and indestructible, since the vertically integrated Bell System was responsible not only for manufacture, but also for the end-to-end maintenance and operation of the entire network. Time was not a real constraint because the Bell System had no significant competition in the US market, and global markets were beyond its mandate. Besides, telephone service improved steadily and everyone believed Ma Bell knew best.
These guidelines gave birth to a traditional telephone engineer who was conservative, methodical, and risk-averse. Many had suffered through the Depression, further shaping their world-view. Very little diversity in ethnicity, gender, or dress distinguished these gentlemen. Wags claimed that some even developed Bell-shaped heads after sufficient length of service. Exceptions might be found in the relatively ลฝ . small research department about 10% of the Bell Labs staff , as opposed to the Bell Labs development departments and the Bell System operating departments. For researchers, innovation and novelty were primary drivers, with system implementation and business considerations secondary. Operators and developers, on the other hand, didn't relish learning new technologies or risking the ire of dissatisfied customers unless there was an obvious and compelling business need to make changes. Thus, progress came slowly, but when it arrived it was expected to work free of bugs. It was quipped that the Almighty was able to create the universe in six days only because, unlike the Bell System, He didn't start with an imbedded base.