Railway Planning, Management, and Engineering

✍ Scribed by V Profillidis

• Publisher: Routledge
• Year: 2022
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 695
• Edition: 5
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

In a rapidly changing world, with increasing competition in all sectors of transportation, railways are currently restructuring their planning, management, and technology. As commercial and pricing policies change and new methods of organization are introduced, a more entrepreneurial spirit is required. At the same time, new high-speed tracks are being constructed and old tracks are being renewed, magnetic levitation trains are in operation, hyperloop systems are being planned, high-comfort rolling stock vehicles are being introduced, logistics and combined transport are being developed. Awareness of environmental issues and the search for greater safety attribute a new role to the railways within the transportation system. Meanwhile, methods of analysis have evolved significantly, principally due to computer applications, the internet revolution, satellite technologies, and artificial intelligence, all of which offer new ways of thinking about and addressing old problems.

Railway Planning, Management, and Engineering aims to fulfill the need for a new scientific approach for railways. It is intended to be of use to railway planners, managers, economists, engineers, and students in engineering, transportation, economics, and management. The book is divided into three parts, which deal successively with planning, management, track, rolling stock, safety, and the environment.

✦ Table of Contents

Cover
Half Title
Dedication
Title
Copyright
Contents
Preface
List of Abbreviations
1. Railways and Transport
1.1. Invention and evolution of railways
1.1.1. Historical outline
1.1.2. The golden age of railways and successive technical innovations
1.1.3. Railways and their competitors
1.1.4. Railways in the era of monopoly and competition
1.2. Characteristics of rail transport
1.2.1. Ability to transport high volumes
1.2.2. Energy consumption
1.2.3. Environmental performance and safety
1.3. Railways and the economy
1.3.1. Economic cycles and railways
1.3.2. Economic growth and railways
1.3.3. Part of revenue spent for transport and contribution of railways to the economy
1.4. Mobility, sustainability and railways
1.4.1. Mobility and transport evolution
1.4.2. Mobility and sustainability
1.4.3. Mobility as a service and railways
1.5. Railways and the private car
1.5.1. The explosion of private cars
1.5.2. The electric car
1.5.3. Carpooling and car sharing
1.5.4. Driverless (autonomous) vehicles
1.6. A panorama of passenger traffic of railways around the world
1.6.1. Evolution of passenger traffic and of traveled distance performed by railways around the world
1.6.2 Passenger traffic of railways for some countries of the world and evolution over time
1.6.3. Comparative evolution of passenger traffic for railways and other transport modes
1.6.4. Share of railways in the national passenger transport market
1.6.5. Growth rates of passenger traffic of railways
1.6.6. Distances with a comparative advantage for rail passenger traffic
1.7. A panorama of freight traffic of railways around the world
1.7.1. Suitability of railways for some categories of freight
1.7.2. Evolution of freight traffic of railways around the world
1.7.3. Freight traffic of railways for some countries of the world and evolution over time
1.7.4. Comparative evolution of freight traffic for railways and other transport modes
1.7.5. Share of railways in the national freight transport market
1.7.6. Growth rates of freight traffic of railways
1.8. Railway traffic, length of lines, staff, and productivity of railways
1.9. Priority to passenger or freight traffic
1.10. Position of railways in the transport market, comparative advantages,and transport services with good prospects for railways
1.10.1. Competition in the transport market and comparative advantages of railways
1.10.2. Railways and high speeds
1.10.3. Urban rail services
1.10.4. Bulk loads – Rail freight corridors
1.10.5. Combined transport
1.10.6. Rail freight transport and logistics
1.11. Railways and air transport: competition or complementarity
1.11.1. Fields and conditions of competition and complementarity
1.11.2. Rail links with airports
1.11.3. Rail connections of airports with remote areas
1.11.4. Low-cost air transport and railways
1.12. The sanitary crisis of 2020 and 2021 and its effects on rail transport
1.13. International railway institutions
1.14. The rail industry worldwide
1.15. Railway interoperability
1.16. Applications of GPS in railways
1.17. Big data, Internet of Things, Artificial Intelligence and railways
2 High Speeds, Magnetic Levitation, and Hyperloop
2.1. The evolution of high speeds on rails
2.1.1. Definition of high-speed trains and evolution of speed
2.1.2. Panorama of high-speed lines around the world
2.1.3. High speeds for only passenger or mixed traffic
2.2. High-speed trains and their impact on the rail market
2.2.1. High speeds and population concentrations
2.2.2. Impact of high speeds on the reduction of rail travel times
2.2.3. High speeds and new rail traffic
2.3. Technical features of high-speed railway lines
2.3.1. Technical characteristics of high-speed lines
2.3.2. Track characteristics for high speeds
2.3.3. Rolling stock for high speeds
2.3.4. Power supply at high speeds
2.3.5. Economic data for high-speed trains
2.4. The Channel Tunnel and high speeds between London and Paris
2.4.1. Technical description
2.4.2. Travel times
2.4.3. Method of financing and forecasts of demand
2.4.4. Operation, safety, and maintenance
2.5. Tilting trains
2.6. Aerotrain
2.7. Magnetic levitation
2.7.1. Technical description
2.7.2. Comparison of magnetic levitation with conventional railways
2.7.3. Applications of magnetic levitation
2.8. Hyperloop technology and systems
3 Policy and Legislation
3.1. The competitive international environment and the evolution of the organization of railways
3.2. The dual nature of railways: business and technology
3.2.1. Weaknesses inherited to railways
3.2.2. Comparative advantages of railways
3.2.3. Strategy and restructuring measures
3.2.4. Railways and transport requirements
3.3. Globalization and liberalization of the rail market
3.4. Separation of infrastructure from operation and the new challenges for railways
3.4.1. Separation as an incentive for competition
3.4.2. Competition and new challenges for railways
3.4.3. Various forms of separation
3.5. A definition of railway infrastructure
3.6. European Union rail legislation
3.7. Some representative models of separation of infrastructure from operation in European railways
3.7.1. The Integrated model
3.7.2. The Semi-integrated model with apparent organic separation
3.7.3. The Holding model
3.7.4. The Separated model
3.7.5. The Separated model along with further separation in infrastructure
3.7.6. The Separated model along with privatization
3.7.7. Assessment of the various models
3.7.8. Assessment of the impact of railway reforms
3.8. Rail legislation in the USA and Canada
3.9. Rail legislation in Japan
3.10. Rail legislation in China and India
3.11. Rail legislation in Russia
3.12. Rail legislation in Australia and New Zealand
3.13. International rail law – The COTIF convention
4 Forecast of Rail Demand
4.1. Purposes, needs, and methods for the forecast of rail demand
4.2. Driving forces and parameters affecting the various categories of rail demand
4.2.1. Driving forces affecting rail demand
4.2.2. Effects on rail demand of the principal parameters of rail transport
4.2.2.1. Passenger rail demand
4.2.2.2. Freight rail demand
4.3. Qualitative methods
4.3.1. Market surveys
4.3.2. Scenario writing method
4.3.3. Executive judgment method
4.3.4. Delphi method
4.4. Method of trend projection of statistical data
4.4.1. Theoretical background and conditions of applicability
4.4.2. Example of a projection of statistical data
4.5. Time-series models – Box-Jenkins method
4.6. Econometric models
4.6.1. Definition, domains of application, and successive steps for the construction of an econometric model
4.6.2. Statistical tests for the validity of an econometric model
4.6.3. Examples of some econometric models for the forecast of rail demand
4.6.4. Exogenous and endogenous variables in rail econometric models
4.7. A statistical method of forecast for highly diverging data
4.8. Gravity models
4.9. Fuzzy models
4.9.1. Fuzzy numbers and fuzzy logic
4.9.2. Fuzzy regression analysis
4.9.3. Example of a fuzzy model
4.10. Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) models
4.10.1. Artificial neural networks and biological neurons
4.10.2. Artificial neurons and how they operate
4.10.3. Input, output, and hidden layers of ANN
4.10.4. A variety of ANN models
4.10.5. Suitability and areas of applications of ANN
4.10.6. Example of application of ANN for the analysis and forecast of rail demand
4.11. Evaluation of the forecasting ability of a model for the forecast of rail demand
4.12. A comparative analysis of performances of each method and selection of the appropriate one
5 Costs and Pricing
5.1. Definition of railway costs
5.1.1. Construction, maintenance, and operation costs
5.1.2. Fixed and variable costs
5.1.3. Marginal cost
5.1.4. External costs and marginal social cost
5.1.5. Generalized cost – Monetary value of time
5.2. Construction costs of a new railway line
5.2.1. Factors affecting construction costs of railways
5.2.2. Construction costs for new high-speed lines
5.2.3. Allocation of construction costs to the various rail components
5.2.4. Construction costs of civil engineering works
5.2.5. Construction costs of track superstructure
5.2.6. Construction costs of electric traction
5.2.7. Construction costs of signaling
5.2.8. Costs of installing level crossings
5.3. Maintenance and operation costs of rail infrastructure
5.3.1. Maintenance costs of rail infrastructure
5.3.2. Operation costs of rail infrastructure
5.4. Costs of purchase and of maintenance of rolling stock
5.4.1. Costs of high-speed rolling stock
5.4.2. Costs of purchase of ordinary passenger vehicles
5.4.3. Costs of purchase of freight vehicles
5.4.4. Costs of purchase of diesel locomotives
5.4.5. Costs of purchase of electric locomotives
5.4.6. Maintenance costs of rolling stock, signaling, and electrification
5.5. Economic life of the various components of the railway system
5.6. Costs of operation and revenues of a railway company
5.6.1. Passenger transport
5.6.2. Freight transport
5.6.3. Combined transport
5.7. Quantification of external costs in monetary values and internalization policies
5.7.1. Quantification of external costs in monetary values
5.7.2. Internalization of external costs
5.8. Pricing of infrastructure
5.8.1. Principles for the pricing of railway infrastructure
5.8.2. Objectives of infrastructure pricing
5.8.3. Financial consequences of infrastructure pricing
5.8.4. A commercial approach of infrastructure pricing
5.8.5. Theoretical and practical infrastructure pricing
5.8.6. Structure of infrastructure pricing
5.9. Infrastructure pricing models in some countries
5.9.1. Infrastructure pricing according to European Union legislation
5.9.2. France
5.9.3. Germany
5.9.4. United Kingdom
5.9.5. Italy
5.9.6. Spain
5.9.7. Poland
5.9.8. Sweden
5.9.9. Austria
5.9.10. Belgium
5.9.11. Denmark
5.9.12. A comparison of rail infrastructure charges
5.10. Pricing of operation
5.10.1. Targets of pricing of operation
5.10.2. The traditional method of pricing
5.10.3. Effects of elasticities
5.10.4. Pricing and competition
5.11. Pricing of passenger traffic
5.11.1. The existence (or not) of public service obligations
5.11.2. The strategic dilemma: profit or increase of traffic
5.11.3. Pricing for rail operators without public service obligations
5.11.4. Yield management techniques and unit revenues
5.11.5. Complementary commercial measures to increase revenues
5.12. Pricing of freight traffic
6 Planning and Management of Railways
6.1. Railways, the society, and the economy
6.1.1. A systems approach for the railways
6.1.2. Railways and the social and economic environment
6.1.2.1. The internal and external environment
6.1.2.2. Strategic and tactical level of decisions
6.1.2.3. Separation in business units
6.1.2.4. Changes and requirements of the environment of railways
6.1.3. Quality control
6.2. Competition and impact on railway management
6.3. Feasibility studies and methods of financing
6.3.1. Need for evaluation of any rail project
6.3.2. Benefits–costs in the case of a new railway infrastructure
6.3.3. Evaluation methods for rail projects
6.3.4. Methods of financing a new rail project
6.3.5. Public-Private Partnerships
6.4. Planning the railway activity
6.4.1. Need and purposes of planning
6.4.2. Master Plans and Business Plans
6.4.3. A brief description of a Business Plan of a railway undertaking
6.5. Project management for railways
6.5.1. Definition of project management
6.5.2. Scope, benefits, and costs of project management
6.5.3. Some rail projects that could require project management
6.5.4. A description of tasks of project management for railways
6.6. Management of infrastructure
6.6.1. Tasks and objectives for rail infrastructure
6.6.2. A new management approach
6.6.3. The issue of outsourcing
6.6.4. The need for homogeneous rail products and services
6.7. Management and policy for rail passenger transport
6.7.1. Tasks and objectives for rail passenger transport
6.7.2. A segmentation of traffic
6.7.3. A new strategy combining competition, cooperation, and alliances
6.7.4. Traditional weaknesses and offer of a new global product of railways
6.7.5. Application of information technologies (internet, SMS)
6.7.6. Marketing – Customer satisfaction surveys – Creation of a new culture
6.8. Management and policy for rail freight transport
6.8.1. Tasks and objectives of rail freight transport
6.8.2. A merciless competition
6.9. Human resources and their revalorization
6.9.1. The need for a more entrepreneurial approach
6.9.2. Allocation of human resources
6.9.3. The art of motivating people to work
6.9.4. Increase of productivity
6.9.5. Restructuring and revalorization of human resources
6.10. Privatization of railways
6.10.1. Prerequisites and targets of privatization
6.10.2. Privatization and competition
6.10.3. The problem of debt
6.10.4. The need for a strong Regulator
6.10.5. Privatization of infrastructure
6.10.6. Privatization of operation
6.10.7. Some cases of privatization of railways all over the world
6.10.8. Effects and degree of privatization
6.11. Justification and calculation of public service obligations
7 The Track System
7.1. The traditional division of railway topics into track, traction, and operation
7.2. The track system and its components
7.3. Track on ballast or on concrete slab
7.4. Track gauge
7.5. Axle load and traffic load
7.5.1. Axle load
7.5.2. Traffic load
7.6. Sleeper spacing
7.7. The wheel-rail contact
7.8. Transverse wheel oscillations along the rail
7.9. Rail inclination on sleeper
7.10. Loading gauge
7.10.1. Static and dynamic loading gauge
7.10.2. European, British, and American loading gauge
7.10.3. Loading gauge for high-speed tracks
7.10.4. Loading gauge for metro systems
7.10.5. Loading gauge for metric gauge tracks
7.11. Forces generated by the movement of a rail vehicle – Static and dynamic analysis
7.11.1. Forces generated
7.11.2. Static and dynamic analysis – Track defects and additional dynamic loads
7.12. Influence of forces on passenger comfort
8 Mechanical Behavior of Track
8.1. A variety of methods adjusted to the nature of the problem under study
8.2. Track coefficients and Bousinesq’s analysis
8.2.1. Definitions – Symbols
8.2.2. Track coefficients
8.2.3. Track coefficients and Bousinesq’s analysis
8.3. Approximate one-dimensional elastic analysis of track
8.3.1. Assumptions and equations
8.3.2. Results of the one-dimensional analysis
8.4. Accurate analysis of the mechanical behavior of track – Finite element method and elastoplastic analysis
8.4.1. A short description of the finite element method and applications for track problems
8.4.2. Construction of the mesh of the model
8.4.3. Limit conditions
8.4.4. Stress-strain relation
8.4.4.1. Case of ballast and subgrade
8.4.4.2. Case of rail and sleeper
8.4.5. Numerical calculations
8.4.6. Determination of the mechanical characteristics of the various materials
8.4.7. Stress and strain in the track–subgrade system
8.4.8. Distribution of wheel load along successive sleepers
8.4.9. Elastic line of sleeper
8.5. Dynamic analysis of the track– subgrade system
8.6. Track defects and additional dynamic loads
8.7. Dynamic impact factor coefficient
8.8. Design of the track–subgrade system
8.9. Vibrations and noise from rail traffic
8.9.1. Origins of rail vibrations
8.9.2. Relation of rail noise level to speed
8.9.3. Damping of rail noise in relation to distance
8.9.4. Noise level in relation to infrastructure type
8.9.5. Noise level in high speeds
8.9.6. Noise level standards
8.10. Analysis of the accurate mechanical behavior of rail
8.11. Application of unilateral contact theories in railway problems
8.11.1. Transmission of forces through contact surfaces
8.11.2. Unilateral contact theories
8.11.3. Equations of the unilateral contact problem
8.11.4. Numerical calculations
8.12. The boundary element method
9 Subgrade – Geotechnical and Hydrogeological Analysis
9.1. The importance of the railway subgrade on track quality and its functions
9.2. Analytical geotechnical study
9.2.1. Targets of a geotechnical study and soil investigation
9.2.2. Preliminary studies
9.2.3. Techniques and methods of exploration used in a geotechnical study
9.2.4. Planning the exploration program
9.2.5. Geotechnical report and longitudinal section
9.3. Geotechnical classifications of soils
9.4. Hydrogeological conditions
9.5. Classification of the railway subgrade
9.6. Mechanical characteristics of the subgrade
9.7. The formation layer
9.7.1. Laying of formation layer in new tracks
9.7.2. Improvement of formation layer in existing tracks
9.8. Impact of traffic load on the subgrade
9.9. Impact of maintenance conditions on the subgrade
9.9.1. The maintenance coefficient
9.9.2. Impact of the maintenance coefficient on the behavior of track bed and the subgrade
9.9.3. Impact of the maintenance coefficient on subgrade stresses
9.10. Fatigue behavior of the subgrade
9.11. Frost protection of railway subgrades
9.11.1. Frost index
9.11.2. Frost foundation thickness
9.11.3. Frost protection methods on existing tracks
9.12. Track subgrade in cuts and on embankments – Values of slopes
9.12.1. Subgrade in cut sections
9.12.2. Subgrade on embankment sections
9.13. The reinforced soil technique
9.14. Hydraulic analysis and calculation of flows
9.14.1. Level of ground water
9.14.2. Semi-empirical formulas for the calculation of run-off flows
9.14.3. The rational method for the calculation of run-off flows
9.15. Geotextiles in railway subgrades
9.15.1. Characteristics, types, and properties of geotextiles
9.15.2. Use and applications of geotextiles in the railway subgrade
9.16. Vegetation on the subgrade and the ballast
9.16.1. Vegetation on the track and herbicides
9.16.2. Criteria and dosage for application of herbicides
9.17. Earthquakes and the behavior of track and the subgrade
10 The Rail
10.1. Rail profiles
10.2. Manufacturing of rail steel
10.3. Mechanical strength and chemical composition of rail steel
10.3.1. Mechanical strength
10.3.2. Chemical composition
10.3.2.1. Carbon
10.3.2.2. Manganese
10.3.2.3. Chromium and Silicon
10.3.2.4. Chromium – Manganese
10.3.2.5. Equivalent carbon percentage
10.3.3. Rail grades
10.3.3.1. Rail grades according to UIC
10.3.3.2. Rail grades according to the European standard
10.3.3.3. Choice of rail grade
10.4. Choice of rail profile
10.4.1. Standard gauge tracks
10.4.2. Metric gauge tracks
10.4.3. Broad gauge tracks
10.4.4. Geometrical characteristics of various rail profiles
10.5. Transport of rails
10.6. Analysis of stresses in the rail
10.6.1. Stresses at the wheel-rail contact
10.6.2. Bending stresses of the rail on the ballast
10.6.3. Bending stresses of the rail head on the rail web
10.6.4. Stresses caused by temperature changes
10.6.5. Plastic stresses
10.7. Analysis of the mechanical behavior of rail by the finite element and the photoelasticity methods
10.8. Rail fatigue
10.8.1. Fatigue curve and rail lifetime determination
10.8.2. Rail fatigue criterion
10.8.3. Evolution of an internal discontinuity
10.9. Rail defects
10.9.1. Definition of rail defects
10.9.2. Codification of rail defects
10.9.3. Defects in rail ends
10.9.4. Defects away from rail ends
10.9.4.1. Tache ovale
10.9.4.2. Horizontal cracking
10.9.4.3. Rolling (running) surface
10.9.4.4. Short-pitch corrugations
10.9.4.5. Long-pitch corrugations
10.9.4.6. Lateral wear
10.9.4.7. Shelling of the running surface
10.9.4.8. Gauge-corner shelling
10.9.5. Defects caused by rail damage
10.9.5.1. Bruising
10.9.5.2. Faulty machining
10.9.6. Welding and resurfacing defects
10.9.6.1. Electric flash-butt welding
10.9.6.2. Thermit welding and electric arc welding defects
10.10. Permissible rail wear
10.10.1. Vertical wear
10.10.2. Lateral wear
10.11. Optimum lifetime of rail
10.12. Fishplates
10.13. The continuous welded rail
10.13.1. The continuous welding technique
10.13.2. Mechanical behavior of continuous welded rail
10.13.2.1. Assumptions
10.13.2.2. Simplified mechanical analysis of continuous welded rail
10.13.2.3. Distribution of forces along a continuous welded rail
10.13.2.4. Length changes in the expansion zone
10.13.2.5. Rail welding
10.13.2.5.1. Flash-butt welding
10.13.2.5.2. Thermit welding
10.13.2.6. Distressing of a continuous welded rail
10.13.3. Expansion devices
10.13.4. Advantages of the continuous welded rail
11 Sleepers – Fastenings
11.1. The various types of sleepers and their functions
11.2. Steel sleepers
11.2.1. Form and properties
11.2.2. Dimensions, weight, and chemical composition
11.2.3. Advantages and disadvantages
11.2.4. Lifetime
11.3. Timber sleepers
11.3.1. Form, properties, and timber types
11.3.2. Geometrical characteristics
11.3.3. Advantages and disadvantages
11.3.4. Lifetime
11.3.5. Deformability of timber sleepers
11.4. Concrete sleepers
11.4.1. Inherent weaknesses of concrete sleepers
11.4.2. The two types of concrete sleepers
11.5. The twin-block reinforced-concrete sleeper
11.5.1. Geometrical characteristics and mechanical strength
11.5.2. Advantages and disadvantages
11.5.3. Lifetime
11.5.4. Deformability of twin-block sleepers
11.5.5. Twin-block sleepers in high-speed tracks
11.6. The monoblock prestressed-concrete sleeper
11.6.1. Geometrical characteristics and mechanical strength
11.6.2. Advantages and disadvantages
11.6.3. Lifetime
11.6.4. Deformability of monoblock sleepers
11.6.5. Monoblock sleepers in high-speed tracks
11.6.6. Manufacturing, quality control, and testing of concrete sleepers
11.7. Plastic and composite sleepers
11.7.1. Definition and distinction of plastic from composite sleepers
11.7.2. Categories and mechanical strength
11.7.3. Advantages and disadvantages
11.7.4. Lifetime, cost, and applications
11.8. Stresses beneath the sleeper
11.9. Fastenings
11.9.1. Functional characteristics
11.9.2. Types of fastenings
11.9.2.1. Rigid fastenings
11.9.2.2. Elastic fastenings
11.9.2.3. Types of elastic fastenings
11.9.2.4. Operating principles of elastic fastenings
11.9.3. Forces and stresses in rigid and in elastic fastenings
11.9.4. Design criteria, anchorage, and insulation of a fastening
11.9.5. Rail creep and anti-creep anchors
11.10. Resilient pads
11.10.1. Pads with or without a baseplate
11.10.2. Functions and properties of pads
11.10.3. Dimensions, materials, and design
11.10.4. Force-elongation curves
11.11. Requirements of the European specifications for the sleeper-fastening system
11.12. Numerical application for the design of the various track components
12 Ballast
12.1. Functions of ballast and subballast
12.1.1. Functions of ballast
12.1.2. Functions of subballast
12.2. Geometrical characteristics of ballast
12.2.1. Granulometric composition
12.2.2. Fine particles
12.2.3. Fines
12.2.4. Particle shape
12.2.4.1. Flakiness index
12.2.4.2. Shape index
12.2.4.3. Particle length
12.3. Mechanical behavior of ballast and subballast
12.3.1. Elastoplastic behavior
12.3.2. Fatigue behavior
12.3.2.1. Ballast
12.3.2.2. Subballast
12.3.3. Modulus of elasticity
12.3.3.1. Ballast
12.3.3.2. Subballast
12.4.1. The Deval test
12.4.2. The Los Angeles test
12.4.3. The Microdeval test
12.4.4. Required strength and hardness of ballast
12.5. Determination of the appropriate thickness of ballast
12.5.1. Determination of the appropriate thickness of track bed
12.5.2. Required thickness of track bed (ballast + subballast) to avoid frost penetration
12.5.3. Thickness of ballast and subballast
12.5.4. Calculation of thickness of ballast according to British regulations
12.5.5. Numerical application
12.5.6. Appropriate thickness of ballast for metric gauge tracks
12.6. Track cross-sections
12.7. Lifetime and reuse of ballast
12.8. Monitoring of ballast characteristics with the use of radar systems
13 Transverse Effects – Derailment
13.1. Transverse effects
13.2. Transverse track forces
13.2.1. Transverse static force
13.2.2. Transverse dynamic force
13.3. Transverse track resistance
13.4. Influence of ballast characteristics on transverse track resistance
13.4.1. Influence of the geometrical characteristics of the ballast cross-section
13.4.2. Influence of the granulometric composition of ballast
13.4.3. Influence of the degree of ballast compacting
13.5. Influence of sleeper type on transverse track resistance
13.6. Additional measures and special equipment used to increase transverse track resistance
13.7. Derailment
13.7.1. Derailment caused by track shifting
13.7.2. Derailment caused by wheel climbing on the rail
13.7.3. Derailment caused by the overturning of the vehicle
13.7.4. Derailment safety factor – Numerical application
13.8. Effects of transverse winds
14 Track Layout
14.1. Rail vehicle running on a curve
14.1.1. Effects during movement of a rail vehicle on a curve
14.1.2. Transition curve – Cubic parabola or clothoid
14.2. Theoretical and actual values of cant – Permissible values of transverse acceleration
14.2.1. Theoretical value of cant for the complete compensation of centrifugal forces
14.2.2. Applied value of cant, cant deficiency, and cant excess
14.2.3. Cant deficiency and tilting trains
14.2.4. Permissible values of transverse acceleration
14.2.5. Variation in time of cant deficiency
14.3. Limit values of cant, cant deficiency, cant excess, and non-compensated transverse acceleration
14.3.1. Limit values according to UIC
14.3.2. Limit values according to European specifications
14.3.3. Geometrical characteristics of layout in some high-speed tracks
14.4. Calculation of the transition curve
14.5. Calculation of the circular arc
14.6. Case of consecutive same sense and antisense circular arcs
14.7. Superelevation ramp
14.8. Combining maximum and minimum speeds
14.9. Relationship of train speed with radius of curvature
14.10. Transition curves in the case of variation of the distance between the axes of two tracks
14.11. Longitudinal gradients and vertical transition curves
14.11.1. Longitudinal gradients
14.11.2. Vertical transition curves
14.12. Some considerations for metric gauge tracks
14.13. Layout design with the use of tables and computer methods
14.14. Numerical application for the layout and the longitudinal design of a track
14.14.1. Layout design
14.14.2. Longitudinal design
14.15. Construction of a new railway line
14.15.1. Feasibility study
14.15.2. Preliminary design
14.15.3. Outline design
14.15.4. Final design
14.15.5. Staking of the track layout
14.16. Environmental aspects of track layout
15 Switches, Tracks in Stations, Marshaling Yards
15.1. Functions of switches
15.2. Components of a turnout
15.3. Various forms of turnouts
15.4. Running speed on turnouts
15.5. Geometrical characteristics of turnouts
15.6. Derailment criterion for turnouts and crossings
15.7. Turnouts on a curved main track
15.8. Turnouts run with increased speeds
15.9. Track layout and positioning of sleepers in turnouts
15.10. Manual and automatic operation of turnouts
15.11. Design principles for turnouts and crossings
15.12. Lifetime and maintenance costs of turnouts
15.13. Turnouts and tracks in railway stations
15.13.1. Railway station: a node connecting the railway with life and economy
15.13.2. Topologies of tracks in stations
15.13.3. Layout of turnouts and tracks in a medium-size station
15.13.4. Length, width, and height of platforms
15.14. Turnouts and tracks in marshaling yards
15.14.1. Definition and functions of a marshaling yard
15.14.2. The various types of marshaling yards
15.14.2.1. Flat yards
15.14.2.2. Gravity yards
15.14.2.3. Hump yards
15.14.3. Automatic regulation of turnouts in marshaling yards
15.14.4. Design of a marshaling yard
16 Laying and Maintenance of Track
16.1. Laying of track
16.1.1. Mechanical equipment
16.1.2. Sequence of construction of the various track works
16.2. Track maintenance and parameters influencing it
16.2.1. Preventive, corrective, and condition-based maintenance
16.2.2. Geometrical and mechanical parameters
16.3. Definitions and parameters associated with track defects
16.4. Track defects
16.4.1. Longitudinal defect
16.4.2. Transverse defect
16.4.3. Horizontal defect
16.4.4. Track gauge
16.4.5. Track twist
16.5. Recording methods of track defects
16.6. Limit values of track defects
16.6.1. Limit values for high-, rapid- and medium-speed tracks
16.6.2. Limit values for medium- and low-speed tracks
16.6.3. Acceptance values
16.6.4. Emergency values
16.6.5. Limit values according to European specifications
16.7. Progress of track defects
16.7.1. Longitudinal defect
16.7.1.1. Mean settlement of track
16.7.1.2. Standard deviation of longitudinal defects
16.7.1.3. Interval between maintenance sessions
16.7.2. Transverse defect
16.7.3. Horizontal defect
16.7.4. Gauge deviations
16.7.5. Track twist
16.8. Mechanical equipment for maintenance works
16.9. Scheduling of maintenance operations
16.10. Technical considerations for track maintenance works
16.11. Optimization of track maintenance expenses – The RAM Sanalysis
16.11.1. Optimization of track maintenance expenses
16.11.2. The RAMS analysis
16.11.3. Track maintenance by own resources or by outsourcing
16.12. Condition-based maintenance, Big data, and Artificial Intelligence
16.13. Track maintenance, vegetation, and weed control
17 Slab Track
17.1. The dilemma between ballasted and non-ballasted track
17.1.1. Advantages and weaknesses of ballasted track
17.1.2. The non-ballasted track
17.1.3. First trials, tests, and evolution of slab track techniques
17.2. A variety of forms of non-ballasted track
17.3. Slab track with sleepers
17.3.1. The Rheda technique
17.3.2. The Züblin technique
17.3.3. The Stedef technique
17.4. Slab track without sleepers (Shinkansen, Bögl, Embedded)
17.5. Non-ballasted track on an asphalt layer
17.6. Mechanical behavior of slab track
17.6.1. Application of the finite element method for the modeling of slab track
17.6.2. Stresses and settlements in the case of slab track
17.7. Transition between ballasted and slab track
17.8. Costs and construction rates of slab track
17.9. Monitoring and repair of slab track
18 Train Dynamics
18.1. Train traction
18.2. Resistances acting during train motion
18.3. Running resistance RL
18.3.1. General equation for the running resistance
18.3.2. Empirical formulas of some railways for the running resistance
18.3.2.1. Formulas of the French railways
18.3.2.1.1. Diesel or electric locomotives
18.3.2.1.2. Hauled rolling stock
18.3.2.1.3. Electric passenger vehicles
18.3.2.2. Formula of the American railways
18.3.2.3. Formulas of the German railways
18.3.2.4. Formulas for broad and metric gauge railways
18.3.3. Resistances developed when running in a tunnel
18.3.3.1. Pressure problems
18.3.3.2. Increased aerodynamic resistances in tunnels
18.3.3.3. Crossing of trains in tunnels
18.3.3.4. Tunnel cross-section requirements at high speeds
18.3.4. Comparative running resistance between railways and road vehicles
18.4. Resistance Rc due to track curves
18.5. Resistance Rg caused by gravity
18.6. Inertial (acceleration) resistance Rin
18.7. Starting force and traction force of a train
18.8. Adhesion forces
18.9. Required power of the engine of a train
18.10. Values of train acceleration and deceleration
18.11. Train braking
18.11.1. Braking systems
18.11.2. Braking distance
18.11.3. European specifications concerning braking
19 Rolling Stock
19.1. Components of a rail vehicle
19.2. Wheels
19.2.1. Geometrical characteristics and materials
19.2.2. Wheel defects and reprofiling
19.2.3. Life cycle of a wheel
19.3. Axles
19.4. Bogies
19.4.1. Definition and functions of a bogie
19.4.2. Forms of bogies
19.4.3. Components of a bogie
19.4.4. Self-steering bogie
19.5. Springs
19.6. Couplings and buffers
19.7. Design of rolling stock
19.8. Localization of the position of a rail vehicle with the use of GPS or other satellite systems
19.9. Tilting trains
19.9.1. Needs which gave rise to the tilting technology
19.9.2. Tilting technology
19.9.3. Technical and operating characteristics of tilting trains
19.9.4. Reductions in travel times by tilting trains
19.9.5. Cost of tilting trains
19.10. Maintenance of rolling stock
19.10.1. Objectives and scheduling
19.10.2. Levels and works of maintenance
19.10.3. Equipment and staff
19.11. Preventive, corrective, and condition-based maintenance of rolling stock
20 Diesel and Electric Traction, Hydrogen Trains
20.1. The various traction systems
20.2. Steam traction
20.2.1. Operating principle of the steam engine
20.2.2. Main parts of a steam locomotive
20.2.3. Disadvantages and obsolescence of the steam locomotive
20.3. From steam traction to diesel traction and electric traction
20.3.1. From steam traction to diesel traction
20.3.2. From steam traction to electric traction
20.3.3. Gas turbine locomotives
20.4. Diesel traction
20.4.1. Operating principle of the diesel engine
20.4.2. Transmission systems
20.4.3. Requirements of diesel locomotives
20.4.4. Advantages and disadvantages of diesel traction
20.5. Electric traction and its subsystems
20.5.1. Power supply subsystem
20.5.2. Traction subsystem
20.5.3. Requirements and priorities
20.6. Electric traction systems
20.6.1. Direct current traction
20.6.2. Alternating current traction
20.6.2.1. Alternating current traction at 15 kV, 162/3 Hz
20.6.2.2. Alternating current traction at 25 kV, 50 Hz
20.6.3. Advantages and disadvantages of electric traction compared to diesel traction
20.7. Feasibility analysis before electrification
20.7.1. Feasibility analysis parameters and procedure
20.7.2. Criterion for selection of the lines to be electrified
20.8. Overhead contact system
20.8.1. Parts and components of the overhead contact system
20.8.2. Calculation of the characteristics of the contact wire with the use of physical models
20.8.3. Calculation of the contact wire with the use of the finite element method
20.8.4. Suspension of overhead contact systems
20.8.5. The pantograph
20.8.6. Power transmission by conductor rail
20.8.7. Electrical and power characteristics of some high-speed tracks
20.9. Poles supporting overhead contact line
20.9.1. Pole material
20.9.2. Pole spacing
20.9.3. Pole foundation
20.10. Substations
20.10.1. Substations feeding direct current systems
20.10.2. Substations feeding alternating current systems
20.10.3. From thyristors to ‘gate turn off ’ technology
20.10.4. Operation control center
20.10.5. Interference of electric traction with telecommunication and signaling systems
20.11. Synchronous and asynchronous motors
20.12. Maintenance of locomotives – Depot
20.13. Hydrogen trains
20.13.1. Hydrogen as a source of energy
20.13.2. Emergence and first applications of hydrogen trains
20.13.3. Advantages and disadvantages of hydrogen trains
20.13.4. Costs of hydrogen
21 Signaling – Automations – Interoperability
21.1. Functions of signaling
21.1.1. Evolution of signaling
21.1.2. Braking distance and signaling requirements
21.1.3. Traffic safety and regularity
21.1.4. The regulatory framework
21.1.5. Basic functions of signaling
21.2. Semaphore signaling
21.2.1. Visual and audible signals
21.2.2. Colors used in signals
21.2.3. Types of signals
21.3. Operating principles of light signaling – The track circuit
21.3.1. Definition of light signaling
21.3.2. The track circuit
21.3.2.1. Definition and components
21.3.2.2. Operating principle of the track circuit
21.3.2.3. The block section
21.3.2.4. Types of track circuits
21.3.2.5. Track circuit relay
21.4. Equipment and parts of a light signaling system
21.4.1. Light signals
21.4.2. Switch control devices
21.4.3. Train integrity detectors
21.4.4. Approach locking detectors
21.4.5. Local operation and display board
21.4.6. Remote monitoring and control
21.4.6.1. Principles of operation
21.4.6.2. Equipment
21.4.6.3. Remote monitoring – Control of traffic safety
21.4.7. Power supply equipment
21.5. Running procedure of trains in a light signaling system
21.5.1. Route interlock
21.5.2. Single track interlock
21.5.3. Approach interlock
21.5.4. Interlocking of opposite schedules
21.5.5. Free way interlocking
21.5.6. Light signal interlocking
21.5.7. Compatible and incompatible schedules
21.6. Speed control
21.6.1. The various speed control systems
21.6.1.1. Automatic control and driver functions
21.6.1.2. Intermittent speed control
21.6.1.3. Continuous speed control
21.6.1.4. Speed control and interoperability
21.6.2. Technical characteristics of train speed control systems
21.6.2.1. Electromechanical control
21.6.2.2. Track-locomotive continuous communication system
21.7. The various degrees of automations in light signaling and operation of trains
21.8. Train scheduling
21.9. Capacity of track
21.9.1. Definition of track capacity
21.9.2. Theoretical, practical, used, and available capacity
21.9.3. Models for the calculation of track capacity
21.9.3.1. Homogeneous traffic under ideal conditions
21.9.3.2. Delays and their effects
21.9.3.3. Homogenous traffic under real conditions
21.9.3.4. Practical capacity for single and double tracks
21.9.3.5. Some computer models for the calculation of track capacity
21.9.4. Capacity optimization with the use of satellite technologies
21.10. Interoperability
21.10.1. Definition
21.10.2. Interoperability of track gauges
21.10.3. Interoperability of power systems
21.10.4. The European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS)
21.10.5. Costs and degree of deployment of ERTMS
22 Safety – Level Crossings
22.1. Safety and railway accidents
22.1.1. Definition of safety and accidents
22.1.2. Railway accidents as spectacular but also ordinary events
22.1.3. Railway safety: a transverse and composite subject – Rail safety authorities
21.2. Types and causes of railway accidents
22.2.1. Types of railway accidents
22.2.2. Causes of railway accidents
22.3. Categorization and indices of railway accidents
22.3.1. Categorization of railway accidents
22.3.2. Indicators for assessing rail safety
22.4. Evolution and statistical analysis of railway accidents
22.4.1. Relativity and inconsistency of statistical data
22.4.2. Gravity and effects of the various types of accidents
22.4.3. Statistical evolution of effects of railway accidents
22.4.4. Suicides and trespassers accidents in the railway area
22.4.5. Costs and economic impact of railway accidents
22.4.6. Railway safety in comparison with other transport modes and among various countries
22.5. Measures to improve railway safety
22.6. Level crossings: Definition, classification, and indicators
22.6.1. Definition of level crossings
22.6.2. Classification of level crossings
22.6.3. Average distance between level crossings
22.6.4. Maximum train speed for installing level crossings
22.6.5. Indicators for assessing safety performance in level crossings
22.7. Causes, statistical evolution, and effects of accidents in level crossings
22.7.1. Causes of accidents in level crossings
22.7.2. Statistical evolution of accidents in level crossings
22.7.3. Economic impact of accidents in level crossings
22.8. Policy, principles, and management strategy for level crossings
22.8.1. General policy and management strategy
22.8.2. Case of passive level crossings
22.8.3. Case of active level crossings
22.8.4. Replacement of level crossings with flyovers or overpasses
22.8.5. A strategy with clear priorities
22.9. Equipment of warning and protection in level crossings
22.9.1. Passive level crossings
22.9.2. Active level crossings
22.9.3. Illumination in level crossings
22.9.4. Cost of equipment in level crossings
22.10. Layout in the area of a level crossing
22.10.1. Design of road pavement and of cross-section in a level crossing
22.10.2. Sight distances in level crossings
22.10.3. Horizontal alignment of roads and tracks in a level crossing
23 Environmental Effects of Railways
23.1. Climate change, the transport sector, and sustainable development
23.1.1. Climate change
23.1.2. The greenhouse effect and climate change
23.1.3. International initiatives and agreements
23.1.4. Sustainable development
23.1.5. Transport and the environment
23.2. Air pollution and railways
23.2.1. Air pollutants from railways and other transport modes
23.2.2. Specific emissions of air pollutants from railways and other transport modes
23.2.3. The greenhouse effect and CO2 emissions from railways and other transport modes
23.2.4. Specific CO2 emissions from railways and other transport modes
23.2.5. CO2 emissions for diesel and electric trains
23.2.6. Internalization of costs of CO2 emissions
23.3. Railway noise
23.3.1. Sources and damping of railway noise
23.3.2. Noise indicators and maximum permitted level of rail noise
23.3.3. Measures for the reduction of rail noise and related costs
23.4. Energy consumption and railways
23.4.1. Energy consumption and the transport sector
23.4.2. Energy consumption within the transport sector
23.4.3. Energy consumption for diesel and electric traction
23.4.4. Specific energy consumption of railways for passenger and freight traffic around the world
23.4.5. Comparative specific energy consumption for railways and other transport modes
23.5. Energy consumed in railways for comfort functions
List of References
Index