Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Book Overview
References
2 History and Architecture
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Closed-Domain Systems with Structured Data
2.3 Open-Domain Systems with Unstructured Data
2.3.1 QA at TREC
2.3.2 Architecture of TextQA
2.4 Open-Domain Systems with Structured Data
2.4.1 Architecture of QA over Knowledge Graph
2.5 Hybrid Systems
2.5.1 Architecture of Hybrid QA
2.6 Summary
References
3 Question Answering Evaluation
3.1 Evaluation of TextQA
3.1.1 Datasets
3.1.1.1 TREC-QA
3.1.1.2 WikiQA
3.1.1.3 Yahoo!
3.1.1.4 MovieQA
3.1.1.5 InsuranceQA
3.1.2 Metrics
3.2 Evaluation of KBQA
3.2.1 Knowledge Graphs
3.2.1.1 Freebase
3.2.1.2 Wikidata
3.2.1.3 DBpedia
3.2.1.4 YAGO
3.2.2 Datasets
3.2.2.1 WebQuestions
3.2.2.2 SimpleQuestions
3.2.2.3 LC-QuAD 2.0
3.2.2.4 QALD
3.2.3 Metrics
3.3 Summary
References
4 Introduction to Neural Networks
4.1 Neural Architectures
4.1.1 Feed-Forward Neural Network
4.1.2 Convolutional Neural Network (CNN)
4.1.3 Recurrent Neural Network (RNN)
4.2 Distributed Word Representation
4.2.1 Word2Vec
4.2.2 GloVe
4.3 Contextual Word Embedding
4.3.1 ELMo
4.3.2 BERT
4.3.3 RoBERTa
4.4 Summary
References
5 Question Answering over Text
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Non-deep Learning-Based Models
5.3 Deep Learning-Based Models
5.3.1 Representation-Based Models
5.3.2 Interaction-Based Models
5.3.3 Hybrid Models
5.4 Summary
References
6 Question Answering over Knowledge Base
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Traditional Models
6.3 Simple Questions over KB
6.4 Complex Questions over KB
6.5 Summary
References
7 KBQA Enhanced with Textual Data
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Study of Models
7.3 Summary
References
8 Question Answering in Real Applications
8.1 IBM Watson
8.1.1 The Jeopardy! Challenge
8.1.2 DeepQA
8.1.2.1 Content Acquisition
8.1.2.2 Question Analysis
8.1.2.3 Hypothesis Generation
8.1.2.4 Soft Filtering
8.1.2.5 Hypothesis and Evidence Scoring
8.1.2.6 Final Merging and Ranking
8.1.2.7 Answer Merging
8.1.2.8 Ranking and Confidence Estimation
8.1.3 Baselines
8.2 DrQA
8.3 YodaQA
8.4 Summary
References
9 Future Directions of Question Answering
9.1 Cross-Lingual QA
9.2 Explainable QA
9.3 Zero-Shot Transfer Models in QA
9.4 Why-Type QA
9.5 Advanced Evaluation for QA
References