Front Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
Copyright......Page 3
CONTENTS......Page 6
PREFACE......Page 14
1 Introducing Psychology......Page 28
Subfields of Psychology......Page 30
Linkages Within Psychology and Beyond......Page 36
Research: The Foundation of Psychology......Page 37
A Brief History of Psychology......Page 40
Approaches to the Science of Psychology......Page 44
The Evolutionary Approach......Page 45
The Behavioral Approach......Page 46
The Humanistic Approach......Page 47
Human Diversity and Psychology......Page 48
SUMMARY......Page 52
2 Research in Psychology......Page 54
Thinking Critically About Psychology (or Anything Else)......Page 56
Critical Thinking and Scientific Research......Page 58
The Role of Theories......Page 60
Naturalistic Observation: Watching Behavior......Page 61
Case Studies: Taking a Closer Look......Page 62
Surveys: Looking at the Big Picture......Page 64
Correlational Studies: Looking for Relationships......Page 65
Experiments: Exploring Cause and Effect......Page 67
Selecting Human Participants for Research......Page 71
LINKAGES: Psychological Research Methods and Behavioral Genetics......Page 73
Descriptive Statistics......Page 76
Inferential Statistics......Page 79
Statistics and Research Methods as Tools in Critical Thinking......Page 81
Ethical Guidelines for Psychologists......Page 82
LINKAGES......Page 83
SUMMARY......Page 84
3 Biological Aspects of Psychology......Page 85
Cells of the Nervous System......Page 88
Action Potentials......Page 89
Synapses and Communication Between Neurons......Page 91
Organization and Functions of the Nervous System......Page 93
The Somatic Nervous System......Page 94
The Autonomic Nervous System......Page 95
The Central Nervous System: Making Sense of the World......Page 96
The Spinal Cord......Page 97
The Brain......Page 98
THINKING CRITICALLY: What Can fMRI Tell Us About Behavior and Mental Processes?......Page 100
The Cerebral Cortex......Page 110
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Manipulating Genes in Animal Models of Human Disease......Page 108
The Divided Brain in a Unified Self......Page 114
Plasticity in the Central Nervous System......Page 117
LINKAGES: Human Development and the Changing Brain......Page 120
The Chemistry of Psychology......Page 122
Three Classes of Neurotransmitters......Page 123
The Endocrine System: Coordinating the Internal World......Page 126
The Immune System: Defending the Body......Page 129
SUMMARY......Page 131
4 Sensation......Page 133
Sensory Systems......Page 135
The Problem of Coding......Page 136
LINKAGES: Sensation and Biological Aspects of Psychology......Page 137
Sound......Page 138
The Ear......Page 140
Auditory Pathways, Representations, and Experiences......Page 142
Coding Intensity and Frequency......Page 143
Vision......Page 145
Focusing Light......Page 146
Converting Light into Images......Page 148
Visual Pathways......Page 151
Visual Representations......Page 152
Seeing Color......Page 154
Interaction of the Senses: Synesthesia......Page 159
Olfaction......Page 160
Gustation......Page 163
Smell, Taste, and Flavor......Page 164
Touch and Temperature......Page 166
Pain......Page 168
THINKING CRITICALLY: Does Acupuncture Relieve Pain?......Page 171
Proprioception: Sensing Body Position......Page 173
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: The Case of the Mysterious Spells......Page 175
SUMMARY......Page 176
5 Perception......Page 179
The Perception Paradox......Page 180
Three Approaches to Perception......Page 181
Absolute Thresholds: Is Something Out There?......Page 182
THINKING CRITICALLY: Can Subliminal Stimuli Influence Your Behavior?......Page 184
Signal-Detection Theory......Page 185
Magnitude Estimation: How Intense Is That?......Page 188
Basic Processes in Perceptual Organization......Page 190
Perception of Location and Distance......Page 192
Perception of Motion......Page 196
Perceptual Constancy......Page 198
Bottom-Up Processing......Page 201
Top-Down Processing......Page 203
Network Processing......Page 204
Culture, Experience, and Perception......Page 206
LINKAGES: Perception and Human Development......Page 207
Attention......Page 208
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: An Experiment in "Mind Reading"......Page 209
Ignoring Information......Page 211
Divided Attention......Page 212
Attention and Automatic Processing......Page 213
Aviation Psychology......Page 214
Human-Computer Interaction......Page 215
Traffic Safety......Page 216
SUMMARY......Page 217
6 Learning......Page 220
Learning About Stimuli......Page 222
Pavlov's Discovery......Page 224
Conditioned Responses over Time: Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery......Page 225
Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination......Page 226
The Signaling of Significant Events......Page 227
Some Applications of Classical Conditioning......Page 230
From the Puzzle Box to the Skinner Box......Page 232
Basic Components of Operant Conditioning......Page 233
Forming and Strengthening Operant Behavior......Page 237
Why Reinforcers Work......Page 241
Punishment......Page 242
Some Applications of Operant Conditioning......Page 244
LINKAGES: Neural Networks and Learning......Page 246
Cognitive Processes in Learning......Page 247
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: An Experiment on Human Helplessness......Page 248
Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps......Page 250
Insight and Learning......Page 251
Observational Learning: Learning by Imitation......Page 252
THINKING CRITICALLY: Does Watching Violence on Television Make People More Violent?......Page 254
Classrooms Across Cultures......Page 257
Active Learning......Page 258
Skill Learning......Page 259
SUMMARY......Page 260
7 Memory......Page 263
Basic Memory Processes......Page 264
Types of Memory......Page 265
Explicit and Implicit Memory......Page 266
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Measuring Explicit Versus Implicit Memory......Page 267
Models of Memory......Page 268
Short-Term Memory and Working Memory......Page 272
Long-Term Memory......Page 275
Distinguishing Between Short-Term and Long-Term Memory......Page 278
Context and State Dependence......Page 279
Retrieval from Semantic Memory......Page 280
Constructing Memories......Page 283
LINKAGES: Memory, Perception, and Eyewitness Testimony......Page 286
How Do We Forget?......Page 288
Why Do We Forget? The Roles of Decay and Interference......Page 289
THINKING CRITICALLY: Can Traumatic Memories Be Repressed, Then Recovered?......Page 291
Biological Bases of Memory......Page 295
Brain Structures and Memory......Page 297
Improving Your Memory......Page 300
Design for Memory......Page 303
SUMMARY......Page 304
8 Cognition and Language......Page 306
Basic Functions of Thought......Page 307
The Circle of Thought......Page 308
Measuring Information Processing......Page 309
Mental Representations: The Ingredients of Thought......Page 311
Concepts......Page 312
Schemas, Scripts, and Mental Models......Page 314
Images and Cognitive Maps......Page 315
Thinking Strategies......Page 316
Formal Reasoning......Page 317
Informal Reasoning......Page 319
Strategies for Problem Solving......Page 322
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Locating Analogical Thinking......Page 323
Obstacles to Problem Solving......Page 325
Building Problem-Solving Skills......Page 328
Problem Solving by Computer......Page 329
Evaluating Options......Page 331
Biases and Flaws in Decision Making......Page 333
LINKAGES: Group Processes in Problem Solving and Decision Making......Page 334
The Elements of Language......Page 336
Understanding Speech......Page 339
The Development of Language......Page 340
How Is Language Acquired?......Page 342
THINKING CRITICALLY: Can Nonhumans Use Language?......Page 344
Culture, Language, and Thought......Page 347
SUMMARY......Page 349
9 Consciousness......Page 352
Analyzing Consciousness......Page 354
Levels of Consciousness......Page 355
Mental Processing Without Awareness......Page 356
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Subliminal Messages in Rock Music......Page 358
The Neuropsychology of Consciousness......Page 360
States of Consciousness......Page 361
Stages of Sleep......Page 363
Sleep Disorders......Page 365
Why Do People Sleep?......Page 368
Dreams and Dreaming......Page 371
Experiencing Hypnosis......Page 373
Explaining Hypnosis......Page 374
LINKAGES: Meditation, Health, and Stress......Page 376
Psychoactive Drugs......Page 377
The Varying Effects of Drugs......Page 378
Depressants......Page 380
Stimulants......Page 382
Hallucinogens......Page 385
THINKING CRITICALLY: Is Marijuana Dangerous?......Page 387
LINKAGES......Page 389
SUMMARY......Page 390
10 Cognitive Abilities......Page 392
A Brief History of Intelligence Tests......Page 394
Intelligence Tests Today......Page 396
Aptitude and Achievement Tests......Page 398
Reliability......Page 399
Validity......Page 400
The Reliability and Validity of Intelligence Tests......Page 401
LINKAGES: Emotionality and the Measurement of Cognitive Abilities......Page 403
IQ Scores as a Measure of Innate Ability......Page 404
Group Differences in IQ Scores......Page 406
IQ Scores in the Classroom......Page 409
THINKING CRITICALLY: Are Intelligence Tests Unfairly Biased Against Certain Groups? 384......Page 411
The Psychometric Approach......Page 414
The Information-Processing Approach......Page 415
The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence......Page 416
Multiple Intelligences......Page 418
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Tracking Cognitive Abilities over the Life Span......Page 420
Creativity......Page 422
Unusual Cognitive Ability......Page 424
SUMMARY......Page 427
11 Motivation and Emotion......Page 430
Concepts and Theories of Motivation......Page 431
Sources of Motivation......Page 432
Instinct Theory and Its Descendants......Page 433
Drive Reduction Theory......Page 435
Optimal Arousal Theory......Page 436
Incentive Theory......Page 437
Hunger and Eating......Page 438
Biological Signals for Hunger and Satiety......Page 439
Hunger and the Brain......Page 440
Flavor, Cultural Learning, and Food Selection......Page 441
Eating Disorders......Page 443
Sexual Behavior......Page 446
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: A Survey of Human Sexual Behavior......Page 447
The Biology of Sex......Page 448
Social and Cultural Factors in Sexuality......Page 450
THINKING CRITICALLY: What Shapes Sexual Orientation?......Page 451
Sexual Dysfunctions......Page 454
Need for Achievement......Page 455
Goal Setting and Achievement Motivation......Page 457
Achievement and Success in the Workplace......Page 458
Achievement and Subjective Well-Being......Page 459
Relations and Conflicts Among Motives......Page 460
LINKAGES: Conflicting Motives and Stress......Page 462
Defining Characteristics......Page 463
The Biology of Emotion......Page 465
James's Peripheral Theory......Page 468
Cannon's Central Theory......Page 472
Cognitive Theories......Page 473
Innate Expressions of Emotion......Page 476
Social and Cultural Influences on Emotional Expression......Page 478
SUMMARY......Page 480
12 Human Development......Page 483
Exploring Human Development......Page 484
Prenatal Development......Page 487
The Newborn......Page 489
The Development of Knowledge: Piaget's Theory......Page 491
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Experiments on Developing Minds......Page 495
Modifying Piaget's Theory......Page 499
Information Processing During Childhood......Page 500
LINKAGES: Development and Memory......Page 501
Culture and Cognitive Development......Page 502
Improving or Endangering Cognitive Development......Page 504
Individual Temperament......Page 506
The Infant Grows Attached......Page 508
THINKING CRITICALLY: Does Day Care Harm the Emotional Development of Infants?......Page 510
Relationships with Parents......Page 511
Peer Friendships and Popularity......Page 514
Social Skills and Understanding......Page 516
Gender Roles......Page 517
Risk and Resilience......Page 520
Changes in Body, Brain, and Thinking......Page 521
Adolescent Feelings and Behavior......Page 522
Identity and Development of the Self......Page 525
Moral Reasoning......Page 526
Emerging Adulthood......Page 528
Cognitive Changes......Page 530
Social Changes......Page 534
Death and Dying......Page 538
Longevity: The Length of Life......Page 539
SUMMARY......Page 540
13 Health, Stress, and Coping......Page 543
Health Psychology......Page 544
Psychological Stressors......Page 546
Measuring Stressors......Page 547
Physical Responses......Page 549
Psychological Responses......Page 551
LINKAGES: Stress and Psychological Disorders......Page 554
Stress Mediators: Interactions Between People and Stressors......Page 555
Predictability and Control......Page 556
Coping Resources and Coping Methods......Page 557
Social Support......Page 558
Stress, Personality, and Gender......Page 560
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Personality and Health......Page 561
Stress, Illness, and the Immune System......Page 564
Stress, Illness, and the Cardiovascular System......Page 566
THINKING CRITICALLY: Does Hostility Increase the Risk of Heart Disease?......Page 567
Promoting Healthy Behavior......Page 569
Health Beliefs and Health Behaviors......Page 570
Changing Health Behaviors: Stages of Readiness......Page 571
Programs for Coping with Stress and Promoting Health......Page 572
LINKAGES......Page 574
SUMMARY......Page 575
14 Personality......Page 577
The Psychodynamic Approach......Page 579
The Structure and Development of Personality......Page 580
Variations on Freud's Personality Theory......Page 582
Contemporary Psychodynamic Theories......Page 583
Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach......Page 584
The Trait Approach......Page 585
Allport's Trait Theory......Page 586
The Big-Five Model of Personality......Page 587
Biological Trait Theories......Page 588
THINKING CRITICALLY: Are Personality Traits Inherited?......Page 590
Evaluating the Trait Approach......Page 593
Prominent Social-Cognitive Theories......Page 594
Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Approach......Page 597
The Humanistic Approach......Page 598
Prominent Humanistic Theories......Page 599
Evaluating the Humanistic Approach......Page 601
LINKAGES: Personality, Culture, and Human Development......Page 603
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Longitudinal Studies of Temperament and Personality......Page 605
Assessing Personality......Page 606
Objective Personality Tests......Page 607
Projective Personality Tests......Page 609
Personality Tests and Employee Selection......Page 610
LINKAGES......Page 611
SUMMARY......Page 612
15 Psychological Disorders......Page 614
Defining Psychological Disorders......Page 616
Behavior in Context: A Practical Approach......Page 617
Explaining Psychological Disorders......Page 618
The Biopsychosocial Model......Page 619
Diathesis-Stress as an Integrative Explanation......Page 622
Classifying Psychological Disorders......Page 623
A Classification System: DSM-IV......Page 624
Evaluating the Diagnostic System......Page 626
THINKING CRITICALLY: Is Psychological Diagnosis Biased?......Page 627
Types of Anxiety Disorders......Page 630
Causes of Anxiety Disorders......Page 633
LINKAGES: Anxiety Disorders and Learning......Page 635
Somatoform Disorders......Page 637
Dissociative Disorders......Page 638
Depressive Disorders......Page 641
Bipolar Disorders......Page 644
Causes of Mood Disorders......Page 645
Schizophrenia......Page 648
Symptoms of Schizophrenia......Page 649
Categorizing Schizophrenia......Page 651
Causes of Schizophrenia......Page 652
Personality Disorders......Page 655
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Exploring Links Between Child Abuse and Antisocial Personality Disorder......Page 658
Psychological Disorders of Childhood......Page 660
Substance-Related Disorders......Page 662
Mental Illness and the Law......Page 665
LINKAGES......Page 667
SUMMARY......Page 668
16 Treatment of Psychological Disorders......Page 670
Basic Features of Treatment......Page 671
Classical Psychoanalysis......Page 673
Contemporary Variations on Psychoanalysis......Page 675
Client-Centered Therapy......Page 677
Gestalt Therapy......Page 679
Behavior Therapy......Page 680
Techniques for Modifying Behavior......Page 681
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy......Page 685
Group Therapy......Page 688
Family and Couples Therapy......Page 689
Evaluating Psychotherapy......Page 691
THINKING CRITICALLY: Are All Forms of Therapy Equally Effective?......Page 692
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Which Therapies Work Best for Which Problems?......Page 695
Choosing a Therapist......Page 697
Cultural Factors in Psychotherapy......Page 698
Rules and Rights in the Therapeutic Relationship......Page 700
Biological Treatments......Page 701
Electroconvulsive Therapy......Page 702
Psychoactive Drugs......Page 704
Evaluating Psychoactive Drug Treatments......Page 708
Drugs and Psychotherapy......Page 709
LINKAGES: Biological Aspects of Psychology and the Treatment of Psychological Disorders......Page 710
Community Psychology: From Treatment to Prevention......Page 711
SUMMARY......Page 713
17 Social Cognition......Page 715
Social Comparison......Page 716
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Self-Esteem and the Ultimate Terror......Page 718
Social Identity Theory......Page 719
The Role of Schemas......Page 720
First Impressions......Page 721
Explaining Behavior: Attribution......Page 724
Biases in Attribution......Page 726
The Self-Protective Functions of Social Cognition......Page 727
The Structure of Attitudes......Page 728
Forming Attitudes......Page 729
Changing Attitudes......Page 730
LINKAGES: Biological and Social Psychology......Page 733
Prejudice and Stereotypes......Page 734
Theories of Prejudice and Stereotyping......Page 735
Reducing Prejudice......Page 737
THINKING CRITICALLY: Is Ethnic Prejudice Too Ingrained Ever to Be Eliminated?......Page 738
Keys to Attraction......Page 740
Intimate Relationships and Love......Page 742
SUMMARY......Page 745
18 Social Influence......Page 748
Social Influence......Page 749
LINKAGES: Motivation and the Presence of Others......Page 751
Conformity and Compliance......Page 753
Why Do People Conform?......Page 754
When Do People Conform?......Page 755
Inducing Compliance......Page 756
Obedience......Page 758
Factors Affecting Obedience......Page 759
Evaluating Milgram's Studies......Page 761
Aggression......Page 763
Why Are People Aggressive?......Page 764
THINKING CRITICALLY: Do Violent Video Games Make People More Aggressive?......Page 767
When Are People Aggressive?......Page 769
Altruism and Helping Behavior......Page 771
Why Do People Help?......Page 772
FOCUS ON RESEARCH METHODS: Does Family Matter?......Page 777
Cooperation, Competition, and Conflict......Page 779
Social Dilemmas......Page 780
Interpersonal Conflict......Page 781
Group Leadership......Page 783
Groupthink......Page 784
LINKAGES......Page 785
SUMMARY......Page 786
REFERENCES......Page 788
CREDITS......Page 880
NAME INDEX......Page 884
SUBJECT INDEX/GLOSSARY......Page 912
