Proportional Liability: Analytical and Comparative Perspectives

✍ Scribed by Israel Gilead (editor); Michael D. Green (editor); Bernhard A. Koch (editor)

• Publisher: De Gruyter
• Year: 2013
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 396
• Series: Tort and Insurance Law; 33
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Causal uncertainty is a wide-spread phenomenon. Courts are often unable to determine whether a defendant’s tortious conduct was a factual cause of a plaintiff’s harm.

Yet, sometimes courts can determine the probability that the defendant caused the plaintiff’s harm, although often there is considerable variance in the probability estimate based on the available evidence. The conventional way to cope with this uncertainty has been to apply the evidentiary rule of ‘standard of proof’.

The application of this ‘all or nothing’ rule can lead to unfairness by absolving defendants who acted tortiously and may also create undesirable incentives that result in greater wrongful conduct and injustice to victims. Some courts have decided that this ‘no-liability’ outcome is undesirable. They have adopted rules of proportional liability that compensate plaintiffs according to the probability that their harm was caused by the defendant’s tortious conduct.

In 2005 the Principles of European Tort Law (PETL) made a breakthrough in this regard by embracing rules of proportional liability. This project, building on PETL, endeavours to make further inquiries into the desirable scope of proportional liability and to offer a more detailed view of its meaning, implications, and ramifications.

✦ Table of Contents

General Report: Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability: Analytical and Comparative Report
I. Introduction
1. Meaning and Definition of Proportional Liability in the Project
2. Causal Proportional Liability Contrasted with Proportional Liability Among Multiple Tortfeasors Based on Contributory (Comparative) Negligence
3. The Aim of This Project
4. Structure
II. Categories of Proportional Liability
1. Why Categorize?
2. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm
A. Sub-category A1 – ‘alternative liability’ – indeterminate tortfeasors
B. Sub-category A2 – ‘market-share liability’ – causally unrelated tortfeasors and victims
C. Sub-category A3 – ‘pollution or drug cases’ – indeterminate victims
D. Sub-category A4 – ‘The hard case’
E. Sub-category A5 – ‘lost chances’
3. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm
A. Sub-category B1 – all parts of P’s harm were caused by liable Ds
B. Sub-category B2 – some parts of P’s harm were caused by other factors
4. Category C – Unrealized Risks with Potential for Future Harms
5. Category D – ‘Combination Cases’
III. Policy Considerations
IV. Burden and Standard of Proof
V. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor
A. Analysis
B. A1 cases in comparison
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims
A. Analysis
B. A2 cases in comparison
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims
A. Analysis
B. A3 cases in comparison
4. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’
A. Analysis
B. A4 cases in comparison
5. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine
A. Analysis
B. A5 cases in comparison
VI. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors
A. Analysis
B. B1 cases in comparison
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors
A. Analysis
B. B2 cases in comparison
VII. Category C – Risks of Future Harm
1. Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely
A. Analysis
B. C1 cases in comparison
2. Sub-Category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain
A. Analysis
B. C2 cases in comparison
VIII. Category D – ‘Combination Cases’
1. On the meaning of combination cases
2. How to cope with ‘combination cases’
IX. Summary and Conclusions
1. How to Approach CPL Issues?
2. The Relevant Factual Effects of CPL
3. Normative Considerations
4. On the Cautious Monitored Development of CPL
5. On the Comparative Landscape
6. On Future Developments
Categories of Proportional Liability
Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm
Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor
Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims
Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims
Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’
Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine
Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm
Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors
Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors
Category C – Risks of Future Harm
Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely
Sub-category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain
Category D – ‘Combination Cases’
Country Reports
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Austria
I. Standard of Proof
II. The Discussion of Proportional Liability in Austria
A. The Starting Point – Multiple Tortfeasors under the ABGB
B. Alternative Causes
1. Alternative External Causes
2. Alternative External Causes Competing with Risks within the Victim’s own Sphere
C. Other Instances of Causal Uncertainty
1. Alternative Victims
2. Minimal Causation
3. Loss of a Chance
4. Market-Share Liability
D. The Two Drafts of a Tort Law Reform – One Step Forward and Two Steps Back
III. The Case Hypotheticals from an Austrian Perspective
A. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims
4. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’
5. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine
B. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors
C. Category C – Risks of Future Harm
D. Category D – ‘Combination Cases
IV. Summary
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in the Czech Republic
I. Definition of Proportional Liability
A. Introduction
B. Legal Provisions of Substantive Law
1. Provisions on Multiple Tortfeasors
2. Causation
3. Provisions on Proportional Liability
II. Policy Consideration
III. Burden of Proof
A. Legal Provisions
B. Possible Changes
IV. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims
4. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’
5. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine
V. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors
VI. Category C – Risks of Future Harm
1. Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely
2. Sub-category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Denmark
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in England and Wales
I. Introduction
Meaning of ‘Proportional Liability’
II. Proportional Liability: The Fairchild Exception
A. Starting Points
B. Orthodox Approach to Alternative Causes
C. Fairchild and beyond
III. The Categories of Proportional Liability
A. Alternative Liability (Unidentified Tortfeasor)
B. ‘Market-Share Liability’ (A Closed Set of Tortfeasors and Victims)
C. Pollution and Drug Cases (Unidentified Victim)
D. Increased Risk
E. The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine
F. Certain Causation – Uncertain Extent (Only Tortious Causes)
G. Certain Causation – Uncertain Extent (Tortious and Non-Tortious Causes)
H. Causal Uncertainty as to Future Harm
IV. Concluding Remarks
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in France
I. Introduction
II. Burden and Standard of Proof
III. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm
1. Sub-Category A4 – A5: The ‘Hard Case’ and Lost Chances
2. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims
4. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims
IV. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm
V. Category C – Risks of Future Harm
1. Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely
2. Sub-category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Germany
I. Definition of Proportional Liability
II. Categories of Proportional Liability
III. Policy Considerations
1. Deterrence
2. Justice/Fairness
3. Reduction of Administrative Costs
4. Further Policy Considerations
IV. Burden of Proof
1. In General
2. Standard of Proof
V. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims
4. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’
5. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine
VI. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors
VII. Category C – Risks of Future Harm
1. Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely
2. Sub-category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain
VIII. Category D – ‘Combination Cases
IX. Conclusions
1. In General
2. The Relevant Factual Effects of Proportional Liability
(a) Gainers and Losers
(b) Effect on Incentives
(c) Number of Suits
(d) Costs of Suits
(e) Informational Difficulties
(f) Distribution of Probabilities
(g) Degree of Fault
(h) Degree of Uncertainty
3. Policy Considerations
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Greece
I. Introduction
General Definition
II. Policy Considerations
III. Burden and Standard of Proof
IV. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims
4. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’
5. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine
V. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors
VI. Category C – Risks of Future Harm
1. Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely
2. Sub-category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Israel
I. Introduction
II. The Malul Case
III. Burden and Standard of Proof
IV. Categorisation
V. Policy Considerations
VI. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims
4. Sub-Categories A4 and A5 – ‘Hard Cases’ and ‘Lost Chances’
Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine
Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’
VII. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors
VIII. Category C – Risks of Future Harm
IX. Concluding Remarks
Proportional Liability in Uncertain Settings: Is it Precautionary? Italian Insights and Comparative Policy Considerations
I. In Search of a Definition for Proportional Liability
A. Introduction
B. The Standard of Proof
C. Reasons to Introduce a Rule of Proportional Liability and Policy Related Implications
II. In Search of Instances for Proportional Liability
A. The First Category of Proportional Liability (and Tools Aiming to Achieve Similar Objectives): Uncertainty Regarding the Link Between Defendant’s Conduct and Harm.
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims
4. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’
5. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine
B. Some Insights on Proportional Liability and Uncertainty
C. The Second Category of Proportional Liability: Indeterminate Parts of Harm
D. The Third Category of Proportional Liability: Uncertain Materialisation of Risk
III. In Search of a Reasonable Proportional Liability Rule for Uncertain Settings
Going Dutch: How to Address Cases of Causal Uncertainty
I. Preface
II. An All-or-Nothing External Liability Paired with an Internal Proportional Apportionment
III. The Reversal of the Burden of Proof
IV. The Theory of the Loss of a Chance: A Step Closer towards Accepting Proportional Liability
V. Proportional Liability: No Longer an ‘Internal Matter’
VI. Proportional Liability Confirmed
VII. Follow-up case law
VIII. Concluding Remarks
Annex: Short answers to the cases from a Dutch perspective
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Norway
Existing Solutions to the Various Categories
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Poland
I. Introduction
II. General Remarks on Causation and Burden of Proof in Polish Law
A. Causation
B. Burden of Proof
III. The Way to the Coronation of the Rule of Joint and Several Liability in Polish Law
A. The Rise and Fall of Proportional Liability in Polish Law
B. The Main Characteristics of Joint and Several Liability
IV. Possible Application of Proportional Liability – Specific Categories
A. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims
4. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’
5. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine
B. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Nontortious Factors
C. Category C – Risks of Future Harm
D. Category D – Combination Cases
V. Final Observations
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in South Africa
I. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm
A. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor
B. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims
C. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims
D. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’
E. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine
II. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm
A. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors
B. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors
III. Category C – Risks of Future Harm
A. Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely
B. Sub-category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Spain
I. Introduction
A. The proof of causation under Spanish Law
B. Procedural means to overcome uncertainty
C. The notion of ‘proportional liability’ in current Spanish law
D. Policy considerations in the Spanish debate
II. Categories of proportional liability
A. Uncertainty about past harm
1. Indeterminate tortfeasors (‘alternative liability’)
2. Causally unrelated tortfeasors and victims (‘market-share liability’)
3. Indeterminate Victim (‘Pollution or Drug Cases’)
4. The ‘Hard Case’ category
5. The ‘Loss of Chance’ Doctrine
B. Indeterminate Parts of Harm
1. All the parts of the harm were caused by a group of tortious defendants
2. Part of the harm caused by contributory negligence of the victim or by a non-tortious factor
C. Unrealised risks of future harm
D. Combination cases
III. Final remarks
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in Switzerland
I. Definition of Proportional Liability
II. Categories of Proportional Liability
III. Policy Considerations
IV. Burden and Standard of Proof
V. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm
1. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor
2. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims
3. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims
4. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’
5. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine
VI. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Non-tortious Factors
VII. Category C – Risks of Future Harm
1. Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely
2. Sub-category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain
VIII. Category D – Combination Cases
IX. Conclusions
Causal Uncertainty and Proportional Liability in the US
I. Burden and Standard of Proof
II. The Meaning of Proportional Liability
III. Scholarly Treatment of Proportional Liability in the US
IV. Policy Considerations
V. The Categories of Proportional Liability
A. Category A – Uncertain Causes of Past Harm
1. Introduction
2. Sub-category A1 – ‘Alternative Liability’ – Indeterminate Tortfeasor
3. Sub-category A2 – ‘Market-share Liability’ – Causally Unrelated Tortfeasors and Victims
4. Sub-category A3 – ‘Pollution or Drug Cases’ – Indeterminate Victims
5. Sub-category A4 – ‘The Hard Case’
6. Sub-category A5 – The ‘Lost Chance’ Doctrine
B. Category B – Indeterminate Parts of Harm
1. Sub-category B1 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Tortious Actors
2. Sub-category B2 – Indeterminate Parts of Harm Caused by Nontortious Factors
C. Category C – Risks of Future Harm
1. Sub-category C1 – Future Harm Uncertain Entirely
2. Sub-category C2 – Extent of Future Harm Uncertain
List of Contributors
Index