Cover
Half-title Page
Reviews
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
List of units
Mineral Abbreviations
1 Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology
1.1 Petrology, the Study of Rocks
1.2 The First Rocks and Earth's Early History
1.3 Major Structural Units of the Earth
1.4 How Rocks Are Formed
1.4.1 Heat Transfer Through the Earth
1.4.2 What Causes Melting in the Mantle?
1.4.3 The Melting Process in Rocks
1.4.4 What Determines the Composition and Physical Properties of Magma?
1.4.5 Metamorphic Change
1.4.6 Metamorphism and the Cycling of Volatiles Through the Lithosphere
1.4.7 Range of Metamorphic Conditions
1.5 Upper Mantle
1.5.1 Composition of the Upper Mantle
1.5.2 Mantle Convection, Lithospheric Plate Motion, and the Origin of Rocks
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2 Pressures and Temperatures in the Earth
2.1 Pressure Distribution within the Earth
2.1.1 Lithostatic Pressure
2.1.2 Isostasy
2.2 Temperatures in the Earth
2.2.1 Temperatures in the Core and Lower Mantle
2.2.2 Temperature Gradients in Bore Holes and the Heat Flux from the Earth
2.2.3 Global Heat Flow and Cooling of the Oceanic Crust
2.2.4 Heat Flux on Continents
2.3 Heat Sources in the Earth
2.4 Temperatures in the Lithosphere: The Steady-State Geotherm
2.5 Geothermal Power
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3 Physical Properties of Magma
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Magmatic Temperatures
3.3 Magma Densities
3.4 Magma Viscosities
3.4.1 Measurement of Viscosity
3.4.2 Effect of Magma Composition on Viscosity
3.4.3 Temperature and Pressure Effect on Viscosity
3.4.4 Viscosity and the Flow Velocity of Lava
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4 Intrusion of Magma
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Buoyant Rise of Magma
4.3 Volume Expansion on Melting
4.4 Magma Pressure Generated by Vesiculation
4.5 Tectonic Pressure on Magma
4.6 Flow Through a Porous Medium
4.7 Flow Through Channels
4.8 Intrusion Rates of Magma in Laminar Flow
4.8.1 Laminar Flow of Newtonian Magma in a Pipe-Like Conduit
4.8.2 Laminar Flow of Newtonian Magma in a Sheet-Like Intrusion
4.8.3 Laminar Flow of a Bingham Magma
4.8.4 Laminar Flow of Pseudoplastic Magma
4.8.5 Force Required to Fracture Rock and Inject Magma in Laminar Flow
4.8.6 Magma Flux and Other Fluxes Commonly Encountered in Petrology
4.9 Intrusion Rates of Turbulent Magma
4.10 Diapiric Intrusion of Magma
4.11 Evidence of Magmatic Flow in Igneous Rocks
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5 Forms of Igneous Bodies
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Extrusive Bodies
5.2.1 Fissure Eruptions
5.2.2 Shield Volcanoes
5.2.3 Composite or Strato-Volcanoes
5.2.4 Volcanic Domes
5.2.5 Maar
5.2.6 Pyroclastic Deposits
5.2.7 Large Calderas and Supervolcanoes
5.2.8 Volcanic Hazards and Volcano Monitoring
5.3 Intrusive Bodies
5.3.1 Volcanic Necks (Pipes)
5.3.2 Dikes and Sills
5.3.3 Ring Dikes, Cone Sheets, and Caldron Subsidence
5.3.4 Diatreme Breccia Pipes
5.3.5 Laccoliths
5.3.6 Lopoliths and Layered Intrusions
5.3.7 Stocks
5.3.8 Batholiths
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6 Heat Transfer and Other Diffusion Processes
6.1 Introduction
6.2 General Theory of Heat Conduction
6.3 Heat Conduction Across a Planar Boundary
6.3.1 Heat Transfer Across a Planar Boundary
6.3.2 Cooling of Magma Between Two Parallel Planar Boundaries (Dike)
6.3.3 Cooling Across a Boundary Held at Constant Temperature
6.4 Numerical Analysis
6.4.1 Shaw–Hamilton–Peck Numerical Method
6.4.2 Crank–Nicolson Numerical Method
6.5 Cooling by Radiation
6.6 Cooling and Intrusion of Magma
6.7 Diffusion
6.7.1 Fick’s First and Second Laws of Diffusion
6.7.2 Examples of Diffusion
6.7.3 Diffusion Chronometry
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7 Classification of Igneous Rocks
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Chemical Constitution of the Earth
7.2.1 Meteorites
7.2.2 Chemical Makeup of Magmas and Rocks
7.3 How Igneous Rocks Are Classified
7.3.1 Mode and Norm
7.3.2 CIPW Norm Calculation
7.3.3 MELTS Program and Normative Minerals
7.3.4 General Descriptive Terms
7.4 IUGS Classification of Igneous Rocks
7.4.1 IUGS Classification of Plutonic Igneous Rocks
7.4.2 IUGS Classification of Volcanic and Hypabyssal Rocks
7.4.3 A Suggested Quantification of the IUGS Classification
7.5 The Irvine–Baragar Classification of Volcanic Rocks
7.6 Chemical Discriminants of Rock Types
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8 Introduction to Thermodynamics
8.1 Basic Thermodynamic Concepts and Definitions
8.2 Work, Reversibility, and Irreversibility
8.3 First Law of Thermodynamics
8.4 Standard Heats of Formation
8.5 Second Law of Thermodynamics
8.6 Entropy
8.7 Total Changes in Entropy
8.8 Third Law of Thermodynamics and the Measurement of Entropy
8.9 Gibbs Equation: Thermodynamic Potentials
8.10 Free Energy of Formation at any Temperature and Pressure
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9 Free Energy and Phase Equilibria
9.1 Introduction and Definitions
9.2 Free-Energy Surface in G–T–P Space
9.3 Clapeyron Equation
9.4 Plotting Univariant Lines in P–T Diagrams
9.5 Schreinemakers Rules for Intersecting Surfaces in G–T–P Space
9.6 Schreinemakers Rules Applied to Multicomponent Systems
9.7 Degenerate Systems
9.8 Summary and Conclusions
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10 Thermodynamics of Solutions
10.1 Composition and Energy
10.2 Conservative and Nonconservative Components of a Solution
10.3 Gibbs Free Energy of Solutions
10.4 Gibbs Free Energy of Ideal Solutions
10.5 Gibbs Free Energy of Nonideal Solutions
10.6 Nonideal Solution: the Regular Solution Model
10.7 Unmixing of Nonideal Solutions: Exsolution
10.8 Equilibrium Constant of a Reaction
10.9 Geothermometers and Geobarometers
10.10 Equilibrium Constant Example: Trace Element Thermometry
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11 Phase Equilibria in Igneous Systems
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Phase Diagrams
11.2.1 Graphical Representation of Two Components and the Lever Rule
11.2.2 Graphical Representation of Three Components
11.3 Two-Component Systems
11.3.1 Simple Two-Component Systems with No Solid Solution
11.3.2 The Eutectic
11.3.3 Binary System with Congruently Melting Binary Compound
11.3.4 Binary System with Incongruently Melting Binary Compound
11.3.5 Binary System with Liquid Immiscibility
11.3.6 Complex Binary System with No Solid Solution
11.3.7 Binary Systems with Complete Solid Solution
11.3.8 Polymorphism in Binary Solid Solutions
11.3.9 Binary Systems Exhibiting Partial Solid Solution
11.3.10 Binary Systems with Liquidus Passing Through a Minimum
11.4 Three-Component Systems
11.4.1 Simple Ternary Systems with Congruently Melting Phases and No Solid Solution
11.4.2 Ternary Systems with Congruently Melting Binary Phases
11.4.3 Ternary Systems with an Incongruent Melting Binary Phase
11.4.4 Ternary Systems with Liquid Immiscibility
11.4.5 Ternary Systems with One Binary Solid Solution without a Minimum
11.4.6 Ternary Systems where One Binary Solid Solution has a Minimum
11.4.7 Ternary Systems with More than One Solid Solution Series
11.4.8 Ternary Systems with Binary and Ternary Compounds
11.5 Four-Component Systems
11.6 Adiabatic Phase Relations
11.7 Computer-Generated Phase Relations
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12 Effects of Volatiles on Melt Equilibria
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Volcanic Gases
12.2.1 Composition of Volcanic Gases
12.2.2 Equilibria Between Volatile Components in Volcanic Gases
12.2.3 Effect of Volcanic Gases on Climate
12.3 Solubility of H2O in Silicate Melts
12.4 Solubility of CO2 in Silicate Melts
12.5 Solubility of Sulfur in Silicate Melts
12.6 Effect of H2O on Melting in Silicate Systems
12.7 Fractional Crystallization of Hydrous Magma
12.8 Effect of CO2 on Melting in Silicate Systems
12.9 Role of Oxygen Fugacity in Phase Equilibria
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13 Crystal Growth
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Nucleation
13.3 Crystal Growth Rates
13.3.1 Diffusion-Controlled Growth
13.3.2 Phase-Boundary-Reaction-Controlled Growth
13.3.3 Surface-Nucleation-Controlled Growth
13.3.4 Screw-Dislocation-Controlled Growth
13.3.5 Dissipation-of-Heat-of-Crystallization-and-
Impurities-Controlled Growth
13.3.6 Reactant-Dissolution-Controlled Growth
13.3.7 Effect of Composition and Temperature on Crystal Growth Rates
13.4 Crystal Morphology Determined by Rate-Determining Growth Mechanisms
13.4.1 Experimental Investigation of the Link Between Crystal Morphology and Growth Mechanisms in Silicate Melts
13.4.2 Morphology of Crystals in Diabase Dikes
13.4.3 Crystal Growth Mechanisms and Sector Zoning
13.4.4 Growth of Zoned Garnet Crystals
13.4.5 Growth Mechanism of Garnet Crystals Based On Zoning and Crystal Size Distribution
13.5 Crystal Size Distribution
13.5.1 CSDs in Igneous Rocks
13.5.2 CSDs in Metamorphic Rocks
13.5.3 Measurement of CSDs
13.6 Equilibrium Shape of Crystals and Surface Free Energy
13.6.1 Minimizing Surface Free Energy by Adjusting Crystal Morphology: Wulff’s Theorem
13.6.2 The Crystalloblastic Series
13.6.3 Lowering of Surface Free Energy Through Preferred Crystal Orientations
13.6.4 Interfacial Angles and Minimization of Surface Free Energy
13.6.5 Minimizing Surface Free Energy Through Grain Coarsening and Solution and Redeposition
13.6.6 Growth of Metamorphic Minerals Far from Equilibrium
13.7 Surface Free Energy and Wetting of Crystals by Magma
13.7.1 Wetting of Crystals by Immiscible Liquids
13.7.2 Wetting of Sulfide Liquids and Magnetite Grains by Vapor Bubbles
13.7.3 Dihedral Angles between Crystals in Igneous Rocks
13.7.4 Dihedral Angles and the Compaction of Crystal Mush in Magma Chambers
13.7.5 Measurements of Dihedral Angles in the Source Region of Magmas
13.7.6 Role of Surface Tension Between Silicates and Molten Iron in Core Formation
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14 Isotope Geochemistry Related to Petrology
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Radioactive Decay Schemes
14.3 Rate of Radioactive Decay
14.3.1 Radiocarbon Method
14.3.2 Rubidium–Strontium Method
14.3.3 Uranium–Lead Method
14.3.4 Potassium–Argon Method
14.3.5 Samarium–Neodymium Method
14.3.7 Rhenium–Osmium Method
14.3.8 Hafnium–Tungsten Method
14.3.9 Dating by Electron Microprobe Analyses of Monazite
14.3.10 Fission Track Method
14.3.11 Uranium and Thorium Decay Series
14.4 Evolution of Isotopic Reservoirs in the Earth
14.4.1 Age of the Earth and Timing of Core Formation
14.4.2 Oldest Rocks and Evidence Preserved in Zircon
14.4.3 Mantle Differentiation and the Evolution of [sup(143)]Nd/[sup(144)]Nd
14.4.4 Mantle Differentiation and the Evolution of [sup(87)]Sr/[sup(86)]Sr
14.4.5 Isotopic Reservoirs and the Source of Magmas
14.4.6 Isotopic Evidence for Assimilation of Crustal Rocks by Mantle-Derived Magmas
14.4.7 Combined[sup(143)]Nd/[sup(144)]Nd and [sup(87)]Sr/[sup(86)]Sr Plot and the Source of Magmas
14.4.8 Five Possible Mantle Reservoirs: DMM, HIMU, EM I, EM II, FOZO
14.4.9 Cosmogenic Nuclides: Beryllium and Boron Isotopes and the Rate of Cycling of Material Through Convergent Plate Boundaries
14.5 Stable Isotopes
14.5.1 Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotopes
14.5.2 Carbon Isotopes
14.5.3 Sulfur Isotopes
14.5.4 Helium Isotopes
14.5.5 Nontraditional Stable Isotopes
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15 Magmatic Processes
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Compositional Variation in Suites of Volcanic Rocks
15.2.1 Compositional Variation in Kilauea Lavas: Variation Diagrams
15.2.2 Melt Inclusions in Phenocrysts
15.3 Crystal Settling in Magma and Stokes' Law
15.4 Magma Convection
15.4.1 Thermal Convection Near a Vertical Wall of a Magma Chamber
15.4.2 Thermal Convection in a Horizontal Sheet of Magma
15.4.3 Flow and Cooling Rates in Convecting Magma
15.4.4 Convection Driven by Residual Liquids With Contrasting Density
15.4.5 Double-Diffusive Convection
15.5 Crystal-Mush Compaction
15.6 Igneous Cumulates
15.6.1 Cumulate Nomenclature
15.6.2 Layering in Igneous Cumulates
15.6.3 Final Solidification of Cumulates
15.6.4 Filter Pressing and Flowage Differentiation
15.7 Liquid Immiscibility
15.7.1 Liquid Immiscibility in Tholeiitic Magmas
15.7.2 Liquid Immiscibility in Alkaline Basalt Magmas
15.7.3 Liquid Immiscibility in Carbonate-Rich Magmas
15.7.4 Immiscible Sulfide Liquids
15.8 Diffusion Processes: Soret Effect
15.9 Pneumatolitic Action
15.10 Magmatic Assimilation and Assimilation and Fractional Crystallization
15.10.1 Magmatic Assimilation
15.10.2 Magmatic Assimilation and Fractional Crystallization
15.11 Magma Mixing
15.11.1 Magma Chamber Mixing Scenarios
15.11.2 Thermal Distribution Between Commingled Magmas
15.11.3 Viscosities of Commingled Magmas
15.11.4 Final Homogenization of Commingled Magmas
15.12 Trace Element Fractionation by Magmas
15.12.1 Nernst Distribution Coefficient
15.12.2 Fractionation of Trace Elements
15.12.3 Fractionation of REEs
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16 Igneous Rock Associations
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Igneous Rocks of Oceanic Regions
16.2.1 Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalts
16.2.2 Intraplate Oceanic Islands Associated with Hot Spots
16.2.3 Intraplate Oceanic Islands Associated with Small Hot Spots and Petit Spots
16.2.4 Aseismic Ridges and Oceanic Plateaus
16.2.5 Ophiolite Suites
16.3 Igneous Rocks Associated with Convergent Plate Boundaries
16.3.1 Volcanic Rocks Formed at Convergent Plate Boundaries
16.3.2 Intrusive Rocks Formed at Convergent Plate Boundaries
16.4 Continental Flood Basalts and Large Igneous Provinces
16.5 Large Layered Igneous Complexes
16.5.1 Skaergaard Intrusion, East Greenland
16.5.2 Bushveld Complex, South Africa
16.5.3 Muskox Intrusion, Northwest Territories, Canada
16.6 Continental Alkaline Rocks
16.6.1 Igneous Activity Associated with East African Rift Systems
16.6.2 Alkaline Rocks Associated with Older Rift Systems
16.7 Ultra-Alkaline and Silica-Poor Alkaline Rocks
16.7.1 Alkaline Lamprophyres
16.7.2 Kimberlites
16.7.3 Carbonatites
16.8 Special Precambrian Associations
16.8.1 Archean Crust
16.8.2 Komatiite
16.8.3 Massif-Type Anorthosites
16.9 Meteorite-Impact-Generated Rocks
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17 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Facies
17.1 Introduction: Scope of Metamorphism
17.2 Metamorphic Fabrics and Porphyroblasts
17.3 Metamorphic Reactions and Volatiles
17.4 Metamorphic Grade, Index Minerals, and Isograds
17.5 Metamorphic Facies
17.6 Metamorphic Facies Series
17.6.1 Moderate-Pressure Type (Barrovian)
17.6.2 High-Pressure Type (Subduction Zones)
17.6.3 Low-Pressure Type (Buchan–Abukuma)
17.6.4 Contact Metamorphism
17.6.6 Paired Metamorphic Belts
17.7 Hydrothermal Metamorphism of Oceanic Crust and Serpentinization
17.8 Water and Metamorphic Facies
17.9 Ultrahigh-Pressure and Ultrahigh-Temperature Metamorphism
17.9.1 Ultrahigh-Pressure Minerals and Textures
17.9.2 Formation and Exhumation of UHP Terranes
17.9.3 Ultrahigh-Temperature Minerals and Textures
17.9.4 Ultrahigh-Temperature Environments
17.9.5 High-Pressure Granulites
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18 Deformation and Textures of Metamorphic Rocks
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Metamorphic Foliation
18.3 Porphyroblasts
18.4 Interpretation of Porphyroblast Inclusion Relations
18.5 Metamorphic Textures in Shear Zones
18.5.1 Introduction and Definitions
18.5.2 Mylonites
18.5.3 Shear Sense Indicators
18.5.4 Deformational Heating and Pseudotachylite
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19 Graphical Analysis of Metamorphic Mineral Assemblages
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Model Metamorphic Terrane
19.3 Representation of Mineral Assemblages
19.3.1 Mineral Assemblage Bar Graph
19.3.2 Compatibility Diagram
19.3.3 Activity of Water
19.4 Equilibrium Mineral Assemblages
19.5 Simple Petrogenetic Grid for Model Metamorphic Terrane
19.5.1 Petrogenetic Grid for Zones I–IV
19.5.2 Metamorphic P –T –aH[sub(2)]O Conditions
19.6 ACF and AKF Diagrams
19.7 Representation of Solid Solutions
19.8 Graphical Representation of Mineral Assemblages in Systems of Four or More Components
19.9 Variance in Metapelitic Mineral Assemblages
19.10 Isograds in Metapelitic Rocks
19.10.1 Discontinuous Reactions
19.10.2 Continuous Reactions
19.10.3 Isograd Reactions and Rock Composition
19.11 Petrogenetic Grid for Metapelitic Rocks
19.12 Application: Regional Pressure Estimation
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20 Geothermometry, Geobarometry, and Pseudosections
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Conventional Thermobarometry
20.2.1 Garnet–Biotite Fe–Mg Exchange Geothermometer
20.2.2 GASP Thermobarometer
20.2.3 GRAIL Geobarometer
20.2.4 Some Comments on Other Reactions
20.2.5 Using Multiple Reactions
20.2.6 Mineral Zoning and Thermobarometry
20.2.7 Field Application
20.3 Trace Element Thermometry
20.4 Solvus Thermometry
20.5 Oxygen Isotope Thermometry
20.6 Raman Spectroscopy
20.7 Introduction to Pseudosections
20.7.1 Model Metamorphic Terrane Revisited
20.7.2 Gibbs Free Energy Minimization
20.7.3 Solid Solutions
20.7.4 Fe–Mg Exchange Revisited
20.8 Pseudosection Interpretation
20.8.1 Interpretation of Mineral Assemblages
20.8.2 Rock Dehydration and Hydration
20.8.3 P, T, and Mineral Composition
20.8.4 Changing Bulk Composition
20.8.5 Closing Remarks
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21 Metamorphic Mineral Reactions Involving Fluids
21.1 Introduction
21.2 P–V–T Behavior of Fluids
21.3 Metamorphosed Siliceous Carbonate Rocks
21.4 Thermodynamics of Simple Decarbonation
21.5 Mineral Reactions with Mixed H2O–CO2 Fluids
21.5.1 Isobaric T –X[sub(CO2)] Diagrams
21.5.2 Isobaric T−X[sub(CO2)] Reaction Paths
21.5.3 Field Examples
21.5.4 Estimating Fluid Composition
21.6 Reaction Progress and Fluid Infiltration
21.7 Carbonaceous Material
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22 Material Transport during Metamorphism
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Porosity
22.3 Fluid Flow
22.3.1 Permeability and Darcy’s Law
22.3.2 Mode and Direction of Fluid Flow
22.4 Diffusion
22.5 Mechanical and Hydrodynamic Dispersion
22.6 Dissolution of Minerals in Supercritical H2O
22.7 Mechanisms of Fluid–Mineral Mass Transfer
22.7.1 Barrovian Sillimanite Isograd
22.7.2 Dissolution and Reprecipitation
22.8 Metasomatic Zonation
22.9 Estimating Fluid Fluxes Using Geochemical Fronts
22.10 Fluid Fluxes Along Gradients in Temperature and Pressure
22.10.1 Quartz Veins
22.10.2 Major Element Metasomatism
22.10.3 Mixed Volatile Reactions
22.11 Reaction Kinetics
22.12 Multidimensional Transport and Reaction
22.12.1 Intercalated Metacarbonate and Metapelitic Rocks
22.12.2 Subduction and Mélange Zones
22.12.3 Fracturing, Vein Formation, and Fluid Flow
22.13 Determining Changes in Rock Composition and Volume
22.14 Regional Fluid Transport
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23 Pressure–Temperature–Time Paths and Heat Transfer during Metamorphism
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Preservation of Metamorphic Mineral Assemblages
23.3 Metamorphic Field Gradients
23.4 Conductive Pressure–Temperature–Time Paths
23.4.1 Conservation of Energy
23.4.2 Model Collisional P–T–t Paths
23.4.3 Extension without Magmatism
23.5 Heat Advection by Fluids and Magmas
23.5.1 Basic Principles
23.5.2 Metamorphic Devolatilization
23.5.3 Magmatic Heat Transfer Scenarios
23.6 Effects of Reaction
23.7 Observed P–T–t Paths
23.7.1 HP–LT and UHP Rocks in Subduction Zones
23.7.2 Collisional Settings
23.7.3 The Barrovian Type Area
23.7.4 LP–HT Metamorphism
23.7.5 Granulite Facies and UHT Metamorphism
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24 Origin of Rocks
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Convection in the Mantle
24.2.1 Subduction and Convection
24.2.2 Phase Transformation in the Transition Zone and Convection
24.2.3 Convection and the Rise of Mantle at Spreading Axes and Mantle Plumes
24.2.4 Upper and Lower Mantle Convection
24.2.5 Dynamic Equilibrium and the Rates of Rock-Forming Processes
24.3 Phase Relations in the Upper Mantle
24.4 Plate Tectonics and the Generation of Rocks
24.4.1 Divergent Plate Boundaries
24.4.2 Convergent Plate Boundaries
24.4.3 Back-Arc Spreading
24.4.4 Intraplate Generation of Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks: Hot Spots
24.4.5 Alkaline Rock Production
24.4.6 Delamination
24.5 Reaction Surfaces and the Formation Of Rocks
24.5.1 Anhydrous Lherzolite Solidus and the Origin of Basaltic Magmas
24.5.2 Hydrous Lherzolite Solidus and the Origin of Andesite
24.5.3 Origin of Kimberlites, Carbonatites, and Ultra-Alkaline Igneous Rocks
24.5.4 Extraction of Melt from Its Source
24.5.5 Progressive Metamorphism
24.5.6 Partial Melting of the Lower Crust and the Origin of Granitic Rocks
24.5.7 Periodicity in Rock Production
24.6 Summary and Conclusions
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Quantitative Review Questions
Online Resources
Answers to Selected Quantitative Review Questions
References
Index