Polymer Electrolytes: Characterization Techniques and Energy Applications......Page 4
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 14
1.1 Introduction......Page 16
1.2 Solid Polymer Electrolyte......Page 19
1.3 Gel Polymer Electrolyte......Page 23
1.4 Composite Polymer Electrolyte......Page 27
References......Page 32
2.2.1 Basic Principles of Impedance Spectroscopy......Page 38
2.2.2 Impedance Spectroscopy (IS) Technique......Page 40
2.2.4 Conditions Necessary for IS Measurements......Page 41
2.2.5.2 A Pure Capacitance, C......Page 43
2.2.5.3 R and C Connected in Series......Page 44
2.2.5.4 R and C Connected in Parallel......Page 45
2.2.5.5 Combined Series and Parallel Circuits......Page 46
2.2.5.6 Impedance Spectra of Model Electrolyte Systems......Page 47
2.2.6 Possible Conduction Processes in a Solid Electrolyte......Page 50
2.2.7 Impedance Spectra of Real Systems......Page 51
2.2.7.2 Equivalent Circuits for Real Systems......Page 52
2.2.7.4 Diffusion Impedance or Mass Transport Impedance......Page 54
2.2.7.5 Warburg Impedance......Page 55
2.2.7.6 Equivalent Circuit Representation of an E/E System......Page 56
2.2.8 Impedance-Related Functions......Page 57
2.2.8.3 Immittance Plots......Page 58
2.2.9 Experimental Setup......Page 61
2.2.9.1 Sample and Cell Arrangement......Page 62
2.2.9.2 Other Practical Details and Precautions......Page 63
2.3.1 Determination of Bulk Resistance fromthe Impedance Plots......Page 64
2.3.2 Impedance Data Interpretation and Analysis......Page 65
2.3.2.2 Choice of Equivalent Circuits......Page 66
2.3.3.1 Bandara–Mellander (B–M) Method......Page 68
2.3.3.2 Nyquist Plot Fitting Method......Page 72
2.3.4.1 Conductivity Calculation of Impedance Plots......Page 74
2.3.4.3 Evaluation of Transport Properties using Nyquist Plot FittingMethod......Page 75
2.4 Conclusions......Page 78
References......Page 79
3.1 Introduction......Page 80
3.2 TGA: Experimental Data Interpretation and Analysis......Page 82
3.3 DSC: Experimental Data Interpretation and Analysis......Page 90
3.4 DSC: Experimental Errors and Suggestion for Improvement......Page 97
3.4.2 Apparent Melting at Tg......Page 98
3.4.3 Exothermic Peaks Below Decomposition Temperature While Heating......Page 99
3.4.5 Sharp Endothermic Peaks During Exothermic Reactions......Page 101
3.5 DMA: Experimental Data Interpretation and Analysis......Page 102
References......Page 106
4.1 Introduction......Page 108
4.2 History Development of Mobile Power......Page 109
4.3 Caring for Mobile Power from Birth to Retirement......Page 117
4.3.2 Getting the Most Out of the Lead-Acid Batteries......Page 118
4.3.3 Getting the Most Out of the Nickel-Based Batteries......Page 119
4.3.4 Getting the Most Out of the Lithium Ion Batteries......Page 120
4.4.1 Recycling Primary Batteries......Page 121
4.4.2 Recycling Rechargeable Batteries......Page 124
References......Page 126
5.1 Introduction......Page 128
5.2 Theory: Ionic Conductivity......Page 132
5.3.1 Conventional Batteries and Transient Batteries......Page 135
5.3.2 Fuel Cells......Page 138
5.3.3 Supercapacitors......Page 139
5.3.4 Electrochromic Devices......Page 140
5.3.5 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells......Page 142
5.3.7 Light-Emitting Electrochemical Cells......Page 143
References......Page 144
6.2 Properties of Polymer Electrolytes (PEs)......Page 152
6.3.1 Dry Solid Polymer Electrolytes (SPEs)......Page 153
6.3.2 Gel Polymer Electrolytes (GPEs)......Page 156
6.3.2.1 Ionic Liquid Gel Polymer Electrolytes (ILGPEs)......Page 159
6.3.2.2 Gel Polymer Electrolytes with Nanomaterials......Page 161
6.4.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs)......Page 163
6.4.2 Lithium Ion Batteries......Page 165
6.4.3 Electrical Double Layer Capacitors (EDLCs)......Page 167
6.4.4 Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells......Page 171
6.4.5 Electrochromic Windows......Page 178
6.4.6.1 Transition Metal Oxides......Page 179
6.5.1 In Electrolytes......Page 182
6.5.2.1 DSSCs......Page 184
6.5.2.2 Fuel Cell......Page 185
6.5.2.3 Batteries......Page 186
6.5.2.5 Electrochromic Windows (ECWs)......Page 187
6.6.3 DSSCs......Page 188
6.6.4 Fuel Cells......Page 189
References......Page 190
7.1 Introduction......Page 202
7.2.1 Solid Polymer Electrolytes (SPEs)......Page 203
7.3 Performance and Improvements......Page 205
7.4 Application and Performance of Polymer Lithium Ion Batteries......Page 209
7.5 Future Trends......Page 210
Acknowledgments......Page 211
References......Page 212
8.1 Introduction......Page 216
8.2 Structure and Operation of Lithium Ion Batteries......Page 217
8.2.1 Anode Materials......Page 219
8.2.2 Cathode Materials......Page 220
8.2.4 Li+ Ion Transport in Polymer Electrolytes......Page 221
8.3 Polymer Electrolyte for Lithium Ion Batteries......Page 222
8.4 Performance Characteristics of Lithium Ion Batteries......Page 231
8.5 Challenges and Improvement......Page 233
8.6 Future Trends......Page 234
References......Page 236
9.1 Introduction......Page 246
9.2 Principle and Working Process of Supercapacitors......Page 247
9.2.1 Charge Storage Mechanisms in EDLCs......Page 248
9.2.2 Charge Storage Mechanisms in Pseudocapacitors......Page 251
9.2.2.2 Redox Pseudocapacitance......Page 252
9.2.2.3 Intercalation Pseudocapacitance......Page 253
9.3.1 Liquid Electrolytes......Page 254
9.3.2 Polymer-Based Electrolytes......Page 256
9.3.2.2 Gel Polymer Electrolytes (GPEs)......Page 257
9.3.2.3 Porous Polymer Electrolytes......Page 267
9.4.1 Electrode Characterization......Page 270
9.4.2.1 Electrochemical Characterization Techniques and Important Parameters......Page 273
9.4.2.2 Performance of Polymer Electrolyte-Based Supercapacitors: Some Case Studies......Page 277
9.5 Challenges to Solid-State Supercapacitors and Future Scope of Improvement......Page 299
References......Page 300
10.1 Demand and Supply of Energy......Page 314
10.2 The Sun as a Potential Energy Resource......Page 315
10.4 Photo-Electrochemical Solar Cells......Page 316
10.4.1 General Mechanism of a Photo-Electrochemical Solar Cell......Page 318
10.4.2 Mechanism of a Photo-Electrochemical Solar Cell......Page 319
10.4.4 Photo-sensitization of Wide Bandgap Semiconductors......Page 323
10.5.1 Quantum Dots......Page 325
10.5.2 Mechanism of a QDSSC......Page 328
10.5.3 Quantum Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells (QDSSCs)......Page 329
10.5.4 Polymer Electrolytes for QDSSCs......Page 332
10.6.1.1 Hydrogel Electrolyte with Polyacrylamide......Page 333
10.6.2 CdS-Sensitized Cell with PAN and PVDF Electrolytes......Page 334
10.6.3 ZnO-Based Quasi-Solid QDSSCs Sensitized with CdS and CdSe......Page 338
10.6.4 Natural Polysaccharide Thin Film-Based Electrolyte for Quasi-Solid State QDSSCs......Page 339
10.6.5 Dextran-Based Hydrogel Polysulfide Electrolyte for Quasi-Solid-State QDSSCs......Page 340
10.6.7 Quantum Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells Based on Oligomer Gel Electrolytes......Page 341
10.6.8 QDSSCs with Thiolate/Disulfide Redox Couple and Succinonitrile-Based Electrolyte......Page 342
10.6.9 Graphene-Implanted Polyacrylamide Gel Electrolytes for QDSSCs......Page 343
10.6.11 Hydroxystearic Acid-Based Polysulfide Hydrogel Electrolyte for CdS/CdSe QDSSCs......Page 344
10.6.12 QDSSCs Based on a Sodium Polyacrylate Polyelectrolyte......Page 345
10.7 Summary......Page 346
References......Page 349
11.1 Introduction......Page 354
11.2 Principle andWorking Process of Perovskite Solar Cell......Page 356
11.2.1 Perovskite Materials......Page 357
11.2.2 Perovskite Structure......Page 359
11.2.3.1 Solution-Processed Method......Page 364
11.2.3.4 Thermal Evaporation Technique......Page 367
11.3.1 Device Fabrication......Page 369
11.4 Performance Characteristics......Page 370
11.5 Challenges and Improvement......Page 371
11.6 Future Trends......Page 372
References......Page 373
12.1 Introduction......Page 380
12.2 Principles and Working Process of Electrochromic Window......Page 381
12.3 Types of Electrochromic Electrodes......Page 382
12.4 Mechanism of ECW......Page 383
12.5.2 Criteria of Polymer Electrolytes and Electrochromic Device......Page 384
12.5.3.1 Solid Polymer Electrolytes (SPEs)......Page 385
12.5.3.2 Gel Polymer Electrolytes (GPEs)......Page 389
12.5.3.3 Composite Polymer Electrolyte......Page 398
References......Page 400
Index......Page 406