This paper explores the complexities underlying the apparently simple question ยฑ Is soil fertility declining? ยฑ for Wolayta in southern Ethiopia, an area famed for its high population densities and extreme pressure on resources. Drawing on extensive ยฎeld research in the area, the paper examines diering perceptions of soil fertility decline, and attempts to pick apart the range of evidence of changes in soil fertility over time from a variety of dierent sources, ranging from historical interviews with farmers to fertilizer trials carried out over many years. In contrast to the deยฎnitive statements so often made in development policy statements, the actual situation is much less clear. A detailed understanding of soil fertility dynamics is only reached by a farm and ยฎeld level examination of soil nutrient balances. Dierences according to agroecological zone and socio-economic group are evaluated. These results show that soil fertility is indeed declining in some places, for some people and over certain periods, but it is not universal. Indeed, soil fertility is apparently increasing at certain sites. The implications of such ยฎndings for development policy and practice are brieยฏy explored. Copyright