Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Editor and Contributors
Part I: Basics, Legacy and Historical Purposes
Environmental History
1 Introduction
2 Environmental Effects on Humans and Human Influence on Nature
3 Discussion and Conclusion
References
Nature-Culture Dichotomy and Environmental Consciousness: Do We Fear the Right Things?
1 Introduction
2 Environmental Disasters, Creeping Changes and Perception
3 Environmental Psychology and Biology of Fear
4 Nature, Culture, and Nature-Culture Dichotomy
5 Disaster Stories and Climate Change in Science and the Media
6 Interplay of Scientific and Traditional Knowledge, Religion and Spirituality, Economy and Politics, Communication and the Me...
7 Species Extinction and Degradation of Ecosystems
Appendix A
References
History of Environmental Communication and Education
1 Introduction
2 Education and Communication: Examples of Teaching and Learning About Nature During the Past and Present
2.1 Ancient Egypt and the Cultural Meaning of the Nile
2.2 Sumerian Culture
2.3 Chaco Canyon Culture: Environment and the Influence of Astronomy
2.4 Education Systems of the Ancient Greece, Alexandria and Roman Empire
2.5 Middle Ages, Water, Epidemics and Medicine
2.6 Early Modern Times: Development of Natural Sciences
2.7 The Roots of Modern Environmental Education
2.8 Current Concepts of Environmental Education
2.9 Biodiversity Conservation Education (BCE) in Relation to Environmental Education (EE) and Education for Sustainable Develo...
2.10 Artificial Nature Conservation and Creative Landscape Design
3 Conclusion
References
Part II: Recent Environmental Conditions, Change and Challenges
Resources for Humans, Plants and Animals: Who Is the Ruler of the Driver? And: Can Resource Use Explain Everything?
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Background
3 Optimization Principles
4 World Records of Biomass, Productivity and Species Diversity
5 Natural Catastrophes, Invasive Species, Human Influences
6 Carbon Cycle as an Example for Limits and Challenges of Anthropogenic Influences
7 Evidence of the Theory on Assembly Optimization (TAO)
8 Discussion
References
A Framework for Evaluation of Normative Solutions to Environmental Problems
1 Introduction: The Need for a Framework for Evaluation
2 Rules as Tools: Changes in Norms as Solutions to Problems
3 Outline of an Evaluation Framework: Evaluation Components
4 Evaluative Reasoning
4.1 The Deducibility Criterion
4.2 The Criteria of Effectiveness and Harmlessness
4.3 The Specific Adequacy Criterion
5 The Moral Evaluation of a Set of Rules Using the Theory of Strong Sustainability
5.1 The Deducibility Criterion
5.2 The Effectiveness Criterion
5.3 The Harmlessness Criterion
5.4 The Specific Adequacy Criterion
5.5 To Obtain an Evaluation Judgment
6 Summary and Outlook: Problems and Potentials of the Evaluation Approach
References
Environmental Evaluation between Economics and Ethics: An Argument for Integration
1 Introduction
2 Value Systems and Evaluations
2.1 Philosophical Axiology
2.2 Economic Evaluation
2.3 Conceptual Clarifications
3 Total Economic Value
4 Ecosystem Service Approach
5 Value Systems in Environmental Ethics
5.1 Metabolic and Reliance Values
5.2 Eudemonic Values
5.3 Future Ethics
5.4 Inherent Moral Value
5.5 Conceptions of and Attitudes Towards Nature
6 Synthesis of Approaches: Between Cynicism and Sentimentality
References
Environmental Indicators and Biodiversity Conservation Strategies
1 Introduction
2 Characteristics and Application of Environmental Indicators
3 Concepts, Strategies and Measures
3.1 No Species Loss Strategy
3.2 Labels
3.3 Biodiversity Hotspot Strategy
3.4 Ecological Triage
3.5 Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) and Biodiversity Offset Programmes (BOPs)
3.6 National Parks and Other Types of Protected Areas
3.7 Zero Human Influence Strategies and Wilderness
3.8 Restoration Measures and Experiments with New Habitats
3.9 Eradication of Invasive Species
3.10 Activities Against Illegal Hunting and Trade
3.11 Captive Breeding and Release into the Wilderness
3.12 De-Extinction
4 Summary and Conclusion
References
Change: Risks and Predictability
1 Introduction
2 Preliminary Considerations
2.1 Definitions
2.2 Magnitude of Influence per Unit of Time
2.3 Periodicity, Regularity
2.4 Susceptibility of Ecosystems
2.5 Date of Event
3 The Meaning of Changing Conditions for Landscapes, Ecosystems and Biodiversity
4 Effect Size of Environmental Change in Time at Landscape Scales
5 Conclusion
References
Economy on Top, Nature on the Brink? A Closer Look on the Relationship Between Economic Power and Threatened Nature
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Background
3 Material and Methods
3.1 Data
3.2 Geography
3.3 Economic Power, Affluence and Inequality
3.4 Natural Richness, Biodiversity, Endangerment
3.5 Statistics
3.6 Responsibility and Potential to Act
4 Results of Numerical Analyses
4.1 Distribution Patterns of Economic Power
4.2 Distribution Patterns of Biodiversity and Endangerment of the Biota
4.3 Relationship Between Economic Power and Pressure on Biodiversity
5 Scope of Contribution for Biodiversity Conservation
6 Discussion
References
From Onlookers to Ecosystem-Assistants: Exploring the Potentials of Ecological Restoration Education
1 Introduction
2 Why Should Children Care About the Loss of Biodiversity?
3 Restoring Ecosystems and Human-Nature Relations
4 Introducing the SkolbΓ€cken Project
5 Different Habitats Used as Learning Environments
6 Promising Socio-Ecological´´ Outcomes
6.1 Ecological Outcomes
6.2 Learning Outcomes
7 From SkolbÀcken toEcological Restoration Education´´
8 Concluding Remarks: From Onlookers to Ecosystem Assistants?
References
Part III: Perspectives, Predictions and Solutions
Distribution and Habitat Affinity of Endemic and Threatened Species: Global and European Assessment
1 Introduction
2 Material and Methods
2.1 Habitat Classification
2.1.1 Range of Habitat Groups
2.1.2 Marine Habitats
2.1.3 Coastal and Saline Habitats
2.1.4 Freshwaters Habitats
2.1.5 Mires, Bogs, Fens and Swamps
2.1.6 Grassland
2.1.7 Heathland and Scrub
2.1.8 Forest and Woodland
2.1.9 Desert and Rocky Habitats
2.1.10 Arable Land
2.1.11 Urban, Artificial and Horticultural Habitats
2.2 Databases and Statistics
3 Threatened and Endemic Species
3.1 Distribution Patterns and Habitat Affinity
3.1.1 Distribution Patterns and Habitats of Hyperendemics
3.1.2 Examples of Hyperendemics
3.2 Threats
4 Discussion and Outlook
Appendix
References
Coastal Habitats, Shallow Seas and Inland Saline Steppes: Ecology, Distribution, Threats and Challenges
1 Introduction
2 Historical Meaning and Ecosystem Services
3 Selected Habitat Types
3.1 Coral Reefs
3.2 Tidal Flats
3.3 Mangroves
3.4 Saltmarshes
3.5 Rocky Shores
3.6 Dunes
3.7 Inland Saline Habitats
4 Species Diversity and Threatened Biota
4.1 Diversity
4.2 Threatened Biota and Threats
5 Examples of Restoration Projects
5.1 Restoration Projects on Coral Reefs
5.2 Restoration of Mangroves
5.3 Restoration Projects of Saltmarshes and Tidal Flats
5.4 Restoration Projects of Coastal Dunes
5.5 Restoration Projects of Rocky Shores
5.6 Restoration Projects of Inland Saline Habitats
6 Challenges and Future Perspectives in the Light of Land Use and Climate Change
References
Wetlands: Challenges and Possibilities
1 Introduction
2 Water Laws and Regulations on Wetlands
3 Mires, Bogs, Fens and Swamps
3.1 Current Trends
3.1.1 Protection of Mires
3.1.2 Restoration of Mires
Management of the Hydrologic System
Utilisation of Peatland Areas
Restoration of Mires
4 Freshwater Habitats: Running and Still Waters
4.1 Endangered Species of Wetlands
4.2 Freshwater Habitat Restoration
5 Assessment, Challenges and Possibilities
References
Development and Future of Grassland Ecosystems: Do We Need a Paradigm Shift?
1 Introduction
2 Wild Herbivors, Human Influence and Trends in the Livestock Sector
3 Goods and Services
4 Species Richness
5 Grasslands Types
6 Threats
7 Examples: Brazilian Cerrado, Kazakh Steppe, European Pastures and Meadows
7.1 Brazilian Cerrado
7.2 Kazakh Steppe
7.2.1 Species and Habitat Type Diversity
7.2.2 Anthropogenic Influences in the Past and Present
7.3 European Grasslands
7.3.1 Loss of Grassland in Central Europe
7.3.2 Biodiversity Between Untouched Nature and Human Use
7.3.3 Transforming Cropland to Grassland
7.3.4 The Meaning of Grassland for Agriculture
8 Outlook
References
Heathland, Scrub and Savanna: Overview, Recent Trends and Outlook
1 Introduction: Classification and Terminology
2 Heathland, Shrub and Savanna Habitats Around the World
2.1 Europe
2.2 Africa
2.3 North America
2.4 South America
2.5 Oceania
2.6 Asia
3 Degradation and Threats to Heathland, Shrub and Savanna Habitats
4 Conclusion and Outlook
References
Forest Ecosystems: A Functional and Biodiversity Perspective
1 Introduction: Forest Biodiversity Loss und Human Well-Being
2 Distribution and Ecological Characteristics of Important Forest Biomes
3 Biodiversity Patterns and Drivers of Biodiversity Losses
3.1 Biodiversity Patterns: A Comparison Across Forest Biomes
3.2 Drivers of Biodiversity Loss
4 A Functional-Based Perspective on Forest Ecosystems
4.1 Biodiversity and Forest Ecosystem Functioning
4.2 Linking Biodiversity and Ecological Continuity of Forest Ecosystems
5 Solutions for Safeguarding Forest Biodiversity and Forest Ecosystem Functioning
5.1 Wilderness Areas and Forest Protection
5.2 Ecosystem-Based Forest Management
5.3 Forest Restoration
References
The Future of Agricultural Land
1 Introduction
2 Traditional Land Use at the Hautes Chaumes in Low Mountain Ranges of Central France
3 Eternal Rye Cropping in the Northwest European Lowlands
4 Agricultural Tapestry
4.1 Agriculture and Its Global Impact Over Time
4.2 The Origin of Species Living on Arable Land
4.3 Industrial Agriculture
5 Turning the Tide
5.1 Scaling Down
5.2 Organic Farming
5.3 Paludiculture
6 Concluding Remarks
References
Urban Habitats: Cities and Their Potential for Nature Protection
1 Introduction
2 Urbanisation and Its Consequences for Plant Ecology
3 Affinity to Nature
4 Flora and Fauna of Cities and Urban Habitats
5 Cities in Ecoregions, Ecoregions Represented by Cities
6 Species Conservation in Botanic Gardens, Aquariums and Zoos
7 Limits of Nature Conservation Measures in Cities
8 Outlook
References
Part IV: Synthesis Report
Land Use Change and the Future of Biodiversity
1 Introduction
2 Material and Methods
3 Environmental History, Consciousness, Communication and Education
3.1 Environmental History
3.2 Environmental Consciousness
3.3 Communication and Environmental Education
4 Current Challenges
4.1 Resources for Humans, Plants and Animals
4.2 Environmental Value Schemes
4.3 Relationship Between Economic Power, Biodiversity and Threats
4.4 Environmental Indicators, Biodiversity Conservation Strategies, and Regulations
5 Risks, Realistic Visions and Outlook
5.1 Threatened Species and Risk of Extinction
5.2 Habitat Types, Ecological Requirements and Consequences
5.2.1 Marine Ecosystems
5.2.2 Coastal and Saline Ecosystems
5.2.3 Freshwater Ecosystems, Mires, Bogs, Fens and Swamps
5.2.4 Grasslands
5.2.5 Heaths and Shrublands
5.2.6 Forests and Woodlands
5.2.7 Deserts and Rocky Ecosystems
5.2.8 Arable Lands
5.2.9 Urban, Artificial and Horticultural Ecosystems
5.3 Realistic Visions and Recommendations