Cover
Optical Networks
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Part I: Introduction
1: Optical Networks: An Overview
1.1 Background
1.2 Telecommunication networks: evolving scenario
1.3 Standards for telecommunication networks
1.4 Single-wavelength optical networks
1.5 Wavelength-division multiplexing
1.6 WDM optical networks
1.7 Architectural options in optical networks
1.8 Summary
2: Technologies for Optical Networking
2.1 Optical networking: physical-layer perspective
2.2 Optical fibers
2.2.1 Fiber materials and manufacturing process
2.2.2 Loss mechanisms
Intrinsic losses
Extrinsic losses
Bending losses
Loss-versus-wavelength plot and spectral windows
2.2.3 Propagation characteristics: two models
Ray theory model
Wave theory model
2.2.4 Dispersion mechanisms
Intermodal dispersion
Chromatic dispersion
Polarization-mode dispersion
2.2.5 Fiber nonlinearities
Inelastic scattering
Kerr nonlinearity
2.2.6 Controlling dispersion and nonlinear effects
2.3 Optical couplers
2.4 Isolators and circulators
2.5 Grating
2.5.1 Bragg grating
Fiber Bragg grating
2.5.2 Arrayed waveguide grating
2.6 FabryโPerot interferometer
2.7 MachโZehnder interferometer
2.8 Optical sources
2.8.1 Source materials
2.8.2 LEDs
2.8.3 Semiconductor lasers
Laser modes and spectrum
Single-mode lasers
Tunable lasers
2.8.4 Optical transmitters
Direct modulation of lasers
External modulation of lasers
2.9 Photodetectors
2.9.1 pin photodiodes
2.9.2 Avalanche photodiodes
2.9.3 Optical receivers
2.10 Optical filters
2.10.1 FabryโPerot filters
2.10.2 Filters based on fiber Bragg grating
2.10.3 MZI-based filters
2.10.4 Multilayer dielectric thin-film filters
2.10.5 Tunable filters
Stretched Bragg gratings
MZI-chains with electric control of refractive index
MDTFs with thermo-optic control of refractive index
MEMS-based electromechanical control of FPIs
Acousto-optic tunable filters
Liquid crystal based FPIs
2.11 Optical switches
2.11.1 Switching technologies
Electro-optic switch
Liquid crystal switch
Thermo-optic switch
MEMS-based switch
2.11.2 Switch architectures
2.11.3 Nonblocking switch architectures
Clos architecture
Spankeโs architecture
Switches Using MEMS in Spankeโs architecture
2.12 Optical amplifiers
2.12.1 SOA
2.12.2 EDFA
2.12.3 Raman amplifier
2.13 Wavelength multiplexers/ demultiplexers
2.14 Wavelength converters
2.15 Wavelength-selective switches
2.16 Optical add-drop multiplexers
2.17 Optical crossconnects
2.18 Optical fiber communication systems
2.19 Summary
EXERCISES
Part II: Single-Wavelength Optical Networks
3: Optical Local/Metropolitan and Storage-Area Networks
3.1 Optical fibers in local/metropolitan-area networks
3.2 Choice of physical topologies and MAC protocols
3.3 Distributed-queue dual bus (DQDB)
3.3.1 Physical topology and basic features
3.3.2 MAC Protocol
3.4 Fiber-distributed digital interface (FDDI)
3.4.1 Physical topology and basic features
3.4.2 MAC protocol
3.5 Gigabit Ethernet series: 1 Gbps to 100 Gbps
3.5.1 As it evolved
3.5.2 GbE
3.5.2.1 GbE architecture
3.5.2.1.1 Half-duplex operation
3.5.2.2 GbE physical layer
3.5.3 10GbE
3.5.3.1 10GbE Architecture
3.5.3.2 10GbE physical layer
3.5.4 40GbE and 100GbE
3.5.4.1 40/100GbE architecture
3.5.4.2 40/100GbE physical layer
3.6 Storage-area networks
3.7 Summary
EXERCISES
4: Optical Access Networks
4.1 Access network: as it evolved
4.2 Optical access network architectures
4.3 Passive optical networks (PONs)
4.3.1 Design challenges in PONs
4.3.2 Dynamic bandwidth allocation in PONs
4.3.3 Standard polling with adaptive cycle time
4.3.4 Interleaved polling with adaptive cycle time
Grant sizing and scheduling in IPACT-based DBA schemes
Grant scheduling
4.3.5 Interleaved polling with fixed cycle time
4.3.6 Discovery and registration of ONUs in PONs
4.4 EPON, GPON and 10 Gbps PONs
4.4.1 EPON
4.4.2 GPON
4.4.3 10 Gbps PONs
4.5 Summary
EXERCISES
5: SONET/SDH, OTN, and RPR
5.1 Arrival of SONET/SDH as a standard
5.2 Synchronization issues in telecommunication networks
5.3 Network synchronization in PDH-based networks
5.4 Network synchronization in SONET/SDH-based networks
5.5 SONET frame structure
5.5.1 Basic SONET frame: STS-1
5.5.2 Multiplexing hierarchy for SONET frames
5.5.3 SONET layers and overhead bytes
5.5.4 Payload positioning and pointer justification
5.5.5 Higher-order SONET frames
5.6 Network elements in SONET
5.7 Network configurations using SONET
5.8 Data transport over SONET
5.9 Optical transport network
5.10 RPR: packet-based metro network over ring
5.10.1 Basic features of RPR
5.10.2 RPR node architecture and MAC protocol
5.10.3 RPR fairness algorithm
Congestion detection and rate estimation in AM
Congestion detection and rate estimation in CM
5.11 Summary
EXERCISES
Part III: WDM Optical Networks
6: WDM Local-Area Networks
6.1 WDM in optical LANs
6.2 Experiments on WDM LANs
6.2.1 LAMBDANET
6.2.2 FOX
6.2.3 Rainbow
6.2.4 TeraNet
6.2.5 STARNET
6.2.6 SONATA
6.3 Single-hop WDM LANs
6.3.1 MAC using pretransmission coordination (PC)
Slotted-Aloha/Aloha protocol
Slotted-Aloha/M-server-switch protocol
Performance of PC-based MAC protocols
6.3.2 MAC without PC
Fixed time-wavelength assignment scheme
Performance of fixed time-wavelength assignment schemes
Partially-fixed time-wavelength assignment scheme
Performance of partially fixed time-wavelength assignment schemes
6.4 Multihop WDM LANs
6.4.1 ShuffleNet
Topological characteristics and network performance
Routing schemes
6.4.2 Manhattan street networks
Topological characteristics and network performance
Routing schemes
6.4.3 Hypercube networks
BHCNet
Topological characteristics and network performance
Routing scheme
GHCNet
Topological characteristics and network performance
Routing schemes
6.4.4 de Bruijn networks
Topological characteristics and performance
Routing scheme
6.4.5 Comparison of regular multihop topologies
6.4.6 Non-regular multihop topologies
First subproblem: LCP
Second subproblem:TRP
Third subproblem: RP-BE
Case studies
6.5 Summary
EXERCISES
7: WDM Access Networks
7.1 WDM in access networks
7.2 WDM/TWDM PON architectures
7.3 WDM PON using AWG
7.4 WDM-upgrade of TDM PON
7.5 WDM PON using loopback modulation at ONUs: RITE-Net
7.6 WDM PON using spectral slicing of LEDs: LARNet
7.7 Ring-and-stars topology: SUCCESS
7.8 Ring-and-trees topology: SARDANA
7.9 TWDM PONs
7.9.1 Static TWDM PON using AWG and OSPs
7.9.2 Dynamic TWDM PON using WSS and OSPs
7.9.3 Dynamic TWDM PON using multiple stages of OSPs
7.9.4 TWDM PON using two stages of OSPs with remotely pumped EDFAs
7.9.5 Wavelength and bandwidth allocation schemes for TWDM PONs
Static wavelength and dynamic bandwidth allocation
Dynamic wavelength and bandwidth allocation
7.10 Open access architecture
7.11 Optical networking in access segment of mobile networks
7.12 Summary
EXERCISES
8: WDM Metro Networks
8.1 Metro networks: evolving scenario
8.2 Architectural options: PPWDM, wavelength routing, traffic grooming, circuit/packet switching
8.3 Circuit-switched SONET-over-WDM metro ring
8.3.1 PPWDM ring: uniform traffic
8.3.2 WRON ring: uniform traffic
Iteration 1
Iteration 2
Iteration 3
Generalization
8.3.3 WRON ring: nonuniform traffic
LP-based design
Heuristic designs
Case study
8.3.4 Hub-centric WRON rings
Single-hub WRON ring
Double-hub WRON ring
8.3.5 Interconnected WRON rings
8.4 Packet-switched WDM metro ring
8.4.1 MAWSON
8.4.2 RingO
8.4.3 HORNET
8.4.4 RINGOSTAR
8.5 Bandwidth utilization in packet and circuit-switched WDM rings
8.6 Summary
EXERCISES
9: WDM Long-Haul Networks
9.1 Wavelength-routing in long-haul networks
9.2 Node configurations in mesh-connected WRONs
9.3 Design issues in long-haul WRONs
9.4 Offline design methodologies for long-haul WRONs
9.4.1 MILP-VTD
MILP parameters:
MILP variables:
MILP objective function:
MILP constraints:
9.4.2 ILP/heuristic wavelength assignment
Case study on MILP-VTD
9.5 Wavelength conversion in long-haul WRONs
9.6 Wavelength utilization with wavelength conversion
9.6.1 WRONs with full wavelength conversion
9.6.2 WRONs without wavelength conversion
9.6.3 Comparison of WRONs with and without wavelength conversion
9.7 Online RWA for operational WRONs
9.8 Summary
EXERCISES
Part IV: Selected Topics in Optical Networks
10: Transmission Impairments and Power Consumption in Optical Networks
10.1 Physical-layer issues in optical networks
10.2 Impact of transmission impairments in optical networks
10.2.1 BER in optical receivers
BER in quantum limit
BER of a lightpath in WDM mesh
10.2.2 Power and rise-time budgets
10.3 Impairment-aware design approaches
10.3.1 Impairment awareness in PONs
10.3.2 Impairment awareness in long-haul WRONs
10.4 Power consumption in optical networks
10.4.1 Power-awareness in PONs
LPM-based power-saving schemes in PONs
10.4.2 Power-awareness in long-haul WRONs
Power-saving schemes in long-haul WRONs
10.5 Summary
EXERCISES
11: Survivability of Optical Networks
11.1 Network survivability
11.2 Protection vs. restoration
11.3 Survivability measures in SONET/SDH networks
11.3.1 Unidirectional path-switched ring
11.3.2 Bidirectional line-switched ring
11.3.3 Survivable interconnection of SONET rings
11.4 Survivability measures in PONs
11.4.1 PON protection schemes for feeder and OLT
11.4.2 Comprehensive PON protection scheme
11.4.3 Protection scheme for WDM PONs
11.4.4 Protection scheme for TWDM PONs
11.5 Survivability measures in WDM metro networks
11.5.1 2F-OCh-DP-Ring scheme
11.5.2 4F-OCh-SP-Ring scheme
11.6 Survivability measures in long-haul WDM networks
11.6.1 Upper-bounds of traffic scale-up factor in survivable WRONs
Upper-bound from reduced cut-set due to link failure
Upper-bound from the per-node transmitters and receivers in protection schemes
Upper-bound with disconnected transceivers due to a link failure in restoration schemes
Upper-bounds for protection and restoration schemes
11.6.2 Protection-based design of survivable WRONs
11.6.3 Restoration-based design of survivable WRONs
11.6.4 Recovery time for survivable WRONs
Recovery time in protection scheme:
Recovery time in restoration scheme involving IP layer
11.7 Convergence of survivability schemes in multiple layers
11.8 Summary
EXERCISES
12: Optical Network Control and Management
12.1 Multiple-plane abstraction of telecommunication networks
12.2 Framework of control and management planes
12.3 Control and management of optical networks
12.4 Operation, administration and management in SONET
12.5 Generalized multiprotocol label switching
12.5.1 MPLS: basic features
12.5.2 GMPLS architecture
12.5.3 GMPLS protocols
12.6 Automatically switched optical network
12.6.1 ASON architecture
12.6.2 ASON protocols
12.7 Software-defined networks
12.7.1 SDN architecture
SDN controller(s)
SDN controller(s)
SDN controller(s)
12.7.2 OpenFlow protocol
12.7.3 SDN virtualization
12.7.4 SDN Orchestration
12.7.5 A queuing-theory perspective of SDN
12.7.6 Software-defined optical networks
Optical transceivers and switching elements
Non-SDN optical NEs
12.7.7 SDN/SDON experiments
Laboratory testbeds
Multinational experiments
OFELIA โ European nations and Brazil
OpenFlow-based UCP โ Japan, China, and Spain
Industry initiatives and open network foundation
12.8 Summary
EXERCISES
13: Datacenter Networks
13.1 Datacenters: evolving scenario
13.2 Datacenter networks: architectural options
13.2.1 DCNs using electrical switching
Switch-centric connectivity: tree
Switch-centric connectivity: fat tree
Switch-centric connectivity: VL2
Switch-centric connectivity: Aspen tree
Server-centric connectivity:DCell
Server-centric connectivity: BCube
13.2.2 DCNs using electrical-cum-optical switching
c-Through
Helios
13.2.3 All-optical DCNs
OSA
Mordia
LIONS
13.2.4 DCNs using optical switch and passive stars over fat trees
13.3 Networking with datacenters in long-haul WDM networks
13.3.1 Estimation of datacenter locations
13.3.2 Popularity estimates for objects
13.3.3 Replication of objects in datacenters
13.3.4 Designing WRONs hosting datacenters
13.4 Summary
EXERCISES
14: Elastic Optical Networks
14.1 Challenges in fixed-grid WDM networks
14.2 Elastic optical spectrum
14.3 Multicarrier transmission in EON
14.3.1 OOFDM transmission
Electrical OFDM basics
OOFDM schemes
14.3.2 Nyquist-WDM Transmission
14.3.3 OAWG-based multicarrier transmission
14.4 Bandwidth-variable network elements for EON
14.4.1 Sliceable BVT
14.4.2 BV-WSS
14.4.3 BV-ROADMs and BV-OXCs
14.5 Design issues in EONs
14.6 Offline RSA in EONs
14.7 Online RSA in EONs
14.7.1 Proactive defragmentation
Spectral partitioning
Periodic spectral cleaning
14.7.2 Reactive defragmentation
Hitless spectral adjustment
Hitless spectral adjustment with holding-time-aware reordering of FSs
14.8 Summary
EXERCISES
15: Optical Packet and Burst-Switched Networks
15.1 Bandwidth granularity in WDM networks
15.2 OPS networks
15.2.1 OPS node architecture: generic form
15.2.2 Header processing, TWC, and FDL units
Header processing
TWC schemes
FDL configuration
15.2.3 Optical switching schemes
Wavelength-routed switching scheme
AWG-based scheme with recirculation buffers
15.3 OBS networks
15.3.1 OBS signaling schemes
15.3.2 OBS nodes with JET signaling
15.3.3 Burst assembly schemes
15.3.4 Resource reservation schemes
15.3.5 Use of FDLs and TWCs in OBS nodes
15.3.6 Routing schemes in OBS networks
15.3.7 Latency and burst losses
15.4 Summary
EXERCISES
Appendix A: Basics of Linear Programming and the Simplex Algorithm
A.1 Background
A.2 Geometric interpretation
A.3 Algebraic framework
A.4 Simplex algorithm
A.4.1 Determining the initial BFS
A.4.2 Moving from one BFS to another with improved cost
A.4.3 LP solution using tableau formation
A.4.4 Case study
max{z = 4x1 + 2x2}, (A.61)
max{z = 4x1 + 2x2}, (A.61)
max{z = 4x1 + 2x2}, (A.61)
Ax = d), with A = 1 2 1 0
Ax = d), with A = 1 2 1 0
Ax = d), with A = 1 2 1 0
x = (x1 x2 x3 x4), (A.67)
x = (x1 x2 x3 x4), (A.67)
x = (x1 x2 x3 x4), (A.67)
d = (7, 9). (A.68)
d = (7, 9). (A.68)
d = (7, 9). (A.68)
xB, given by xB = (xB1 xB2) = (x3 x4) = (d1 d2) = (7, 9). (A.69)
xB, given by xB = (xB1 xB2) = (x3 x4) = (d1 d2) = (7, 9). (A.69)
xB, given by xB = (xB1 xB2) = (x3 x4) = (d1 d2) = (7, 9). (A.69)
Pext for the present case study, as Pext =
Pext for the present case study, as Pext =
Pext for the present case study, as Pext =
B, say) among the
B, say) among the
B, say) among the
B)
B)
B)
min{xBi
min{xBi
min{xBi
B or column 5 (i.e., j = 4 in Pext
B or column 5 (i.e., j = 4 in Pext
B or column 5 (i.e., j = 4 in Pext
Pext , i..e., in Pห ext . Using Equations A.55 through A.58, all the elements in Pห ext are
Pext , i..e., in Pห ext . Using Equations A.55 through A.58, all the elements in Pห ext are
Pext , i..e., in Pห ext . Using Equations A.55 through A.58, all the elements in Pห ext are
Pext as:
Pext as:
Pext as:
Pext also
Pext also
Pext also
Pext around the pivot.
Pext around the pivot.
Pext around the pivot.
Practical variations of LP problems
Practical variations of LP problems
Practical variations of LP problems
Pext and the corresponding versions of tableaus.
Pext and the corresponding versions of tableaus.
Pext and the corresponding versions of tableaus.
Appendix B: Noise Processes in Optical Receivers
B.1 Noise sources in optical communication systems
B.2 Shot noise
B.3 Thermal noise
B.4 ASE noise
B.5 Crosstalk
B.6 Total receiver noise
B.7 Laser phase noise
Appendix C: Basics of Queuing Systems
C.1 Queuing: network perspective
C.2 Basic configurations and definitions
C.3 Littleโs theorem
C.4 Poisson arrival process
C.5 Markov process
C.6 Single-server queues: M/M/1 and M/M/1/K
C.7 Multiple-server queues: M/M/c and M/M/c/c
C.8 M/G/1 queue
C.9 Network of queues
C.9.1 Tandem networks of queues
C.9.2 Networks of queues with feedback
Bibliography
Abbreviation
Index