Cover
Nuclear Medicine Radiation Dosimetry
ISBN 1848821255
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
Glossary and Abbreviations
Chapter 1: The Role of Radiation Dosimetry in Nuclear Medicine
Introduction
Diagnostic Nuclear Medicine
Radiation Detector Efficiency
Radionuclide
Radiopharmaceutical Design
Clinical Imaging Practice
Dose Reference Levels
Therapeutic Nuclear Medicine
References
Chapter 2: Theoretical Tools
Introduction
Physical Units
Mathematical Notations
Vector Notation
Complex Conjugation
Hermitian Conjugation
Adjoint Operator
Relativistic Kinematics of a Two-Body Elastic Collision
Introduction
Kinetic Energy of the Recoil Particle
Derivation
Maximum Recoil Kinetic Energy
Massive Projectile and Light Target
Projectile and Target of Equal Masses
Kinetic Energy of the Scattered Projectile
Time-Dependent Perturbation Theory
Introduction
Transition Rate
Quantum Scattering Theory
Introduction
Scattering Amplitude
Scattering Cross Sections
Phase-Shift Analysis
Optical Theorem
Dirac´s Equation
Introduction
Derivation of Dirac´s Equation
Chapter 3: Nuclear Properties, Structure, and Stability
Introduction
Characteristics of Atomic Nuclei: Part I
Introduction
Fundamental Particles and Interactions
Quantum Numbers
Introduction
Electric Charge
Baryon Number
Lepton Number
Spin
Parity
Isotopic Spin
Nuclear Constituents: Nucleons
Categorizations of Nuclei
Isotopes
Isobars
Isotones
Isomers
Nuclear Mass
Atomic Mass Unit
Determination of Nuclear Mass
Nuclear Size
Introduction
Nuclear Size Derived from Nuclear Binding Energies
Nuclear Size Derived from Charged Particle Scattering
Introduction
Kinematics
Elastic Coulomb Scatter
Spin-0 Projectiles
Spin-1/2 Projectiles
Nuclear Scattering Form Factors
Nuclear Density
Nucleon Dynamics: The Fermi Gas Model
Phenomenology of Nuclear Stability
Introduction
Average Binding Energy per Nucleon
Nucleon Separation Energy
Characteristics of Stable Nuclei
Liquid-Drop Model and the Semi-Empirical Nuclear Mass Formula
Introduction
Nuclear Binding Energy
Binding Energy Terms
Volume Term
Surface Term
Coulomb Term
Symmetry Term
Paired Nucleons Term
Contributions of Binding Energy Terms
Mass Parabolae
Prediction of Stable Isobars
Nuclear Shell Model
Introduction
Magic Nuclei
Calculation of Nucleon Orbitals
Characteristics of Atomic Nuclei: Part II
Nuclear Moments
Nuclear Magnetic Dipole Moments
Introduction
Spin-Orbit Angular Momenta Coupling
Magnetic Dipole Moment
Nucleon Magnetic Dipole Moments
Nuclear Magnetic Dipole Moments
Nuclear Electric Quadrupole Moments
Introduction
Multipole Expansion of the Electric Potential
Electric Quadrupole Moment
Isomers
The Deuteron
References
Chapter 4: Radioactive Decay: Microscopic Theory
Introduction and History
α Decay
Introduction
Kinematics of α Emission
Kinetic Energy of the α Particle
Energy Spectrum: Fine Structure
Barrier Penetration
Introduction
One-Dimensional Rectangular Barrier
Three-Dimensional Barrier
Gamow Factor
Angular Momentum
Estimation of α Decay Half-Life
The Weak Interaction: beta Decay and Electron Capture
Introduction
Kinematics of beta Decay and Electron Capture
Neutron beta Decay
Nuclear beta Decay
Introduction
Nuclear beta- Decay
Nuclear beta+ Decay
Electron Capture
Summary of beta Decay and Electron Capture Kinematics
Fermi Theory of beta Decay: Part I
Introduction
Nuclear beta Decay
Introduction
Matrix Element
Phase Space Factor
Energy Spectra
Kurie Plot
Decay Constant
Electron Capture
Selection Rules for beta Decay
Introduction
Selection Rules in Nuclear beta decay
Introduction
Allowed Nuclear beta decays
Forbidden Nuclear beta decays
Fermi Theory of beta Decay: Part II
Four-Fermion Interaction Vertex
Evidence for Parity Nonconservation in Weak Interactions
The theta-tau Dilemma
Parity Nonconservation in beta Decay
Neutrino Helicity
V-A Interaction
gamma Transitions and Internal Conversion
Introduction
gamma Decay
Kinematics
Multi-Pole Radiation
Introduction
Multi-Pole Expansion in Free Space
Energy and Angular Momentum of Multi-Pole Radiation
Selection Rules for Multi-Pole Radiation
Angular Distributions of Multi-Pole Radiation
Multi-Pole Expansion With Source Present
Transition Rates for Multi-Pole Radiation
Internal Conversion
Introduction
Calculation of the Internal Conversion Coefficient
Introduction
Calculation of the Matrix Element
Calculation of the Phase Space Factor
Internal Conversion Transition Rate
0 0 Transitions
Nuclear Isomerism
Introduction
References
Chapter 5: Radioactive Decay: Macroscopic Theory
Introduction
Physical Decay Constant and Activity
Physical Half-Life, Effective Half-Life, and Mean Lifetime
Physical Half-Life
Effective Half-Life
Mean Lifetime
Variability of the Physical Decay Constant
Specific Activity
Radioactive Parents and Progeny
General Case
Parent Half-Life Much Greater than that of Daughter
Parent Half-Life Greater than that of Daughter
Daughter Half-Life Greater than that of Parent
Decay Branching
Applications
Introduction
Measurement of Radioactivity
Correction for Radioactive Decay During Measurement
Background Correction
Reference Standard
Decision Theory
Introduction
Qualitative Detection and Quantitative Determination
Detector Dead Time
Paralyzable Response
Nonparalyzable Response
Verification of Statistical Distribution of Measured Data
References
Chapter 6: Photon Interactions with Matter
Introduction
Photon-Conserving Interactions
Thomson Scatter
Rayleigh (Coherent) Scatter
Compton (Incoherent) Scatter
Introduction
Compton Kinematics
Klein-Nishina Cross Section
Effects of Atomic Binding on Compton Scatter
Photon Nonconserving Interaction
Photoelectric Absorption
Introduction
Kinematics
Cross Section
Phase-Space Calculation
Matrix Element Calculation
Transition Probability and Cross Section
Atomic Relaxation
Introduction
Radiative Transitions
Nonradiative Transitions
Photon Interaction Coefficients
Introduction
Mass Attenuation Coefficient
Mass Energy-Transfer Coefficients
Mass Energy-Absorption Coefficients
Effective Atomic Number
References
Chapter 7: Charged Particle Interactions with Matter
Introduction
Coulomb Scattering With no Energy Transfer to the Medium
Introduction
Elastic Coulomb Scatter
Spin-0 Projectiles
Unscreened Potential (Rutherford Scatter)
Screened Potential
Mean Free Path Between Elastic Scatters
Elastic Scatter from an Atom
Comparison of Atomic Scattering Results
Spin-1/2 Projectiles
Coulomb Scattering With Energy Transfer to the Medium
Introduction
Rutherford Collision Formula
Soft Collision Stopping Power
Introduction
Bohr Theory
Introduction
Impact Parameter
Energy Transfer to a Harmonically-Bound Electron
Equation of Motion of Target Electron
Energy Transfer as a Function of the Electric Field
Calculation of the Electric Field
Bohr Soft Collision Mass Stopping Power
Bethe Theory
Introduction
Collision Kinematics
Bethe Soft Collision Cross Section
Bethe Soft Collision Stopping Power
Comparison of Bohr and Bethe Soft Collision Theories
Hard Collision Stopping Power
Introduction
Differential Cross Sections in Energy Transfer
Massive Projectile Electron Scatter (mme)
Spin-0
Spin-1/2
Spin-1
Electron-Electron (Møller) Scatter
Electron-Positron (Bhabha) Scatter
Hard Collision Stopping Powers
Massive Projectiles (mme)
Electron and Positron Projectiles
Combined Mass Hard and Soft Collision Stopping Powers
Introduction
Massive Projectiles (mm
Electron and Positron Projectiles
Mean Excitation Energy
Stopping Number
Introduction
Atomic Electron Shell Correction
Barkas Correction Term
Bloch Correction Term
Complete Stopping Number (excluding density effect)
Effect of Medium Polarization Upon the Stopping Power
Introduction
Electronic Polarization
Electromagnetic Fields in a Dielectric Medium
Energy Loss in a Dielectric Medium
Sternheimer-Peierls Parameterization of the Density/Polarization Effect
Čerenkov Radiation
Empirical Determination of Mean Excitation Energy and Shell Correction Factor
Mean Energy Required to Create an Ion Pair
Restricted Mass Collision Stopping Power for Electrons
Summary of the Mass Collision Stopping Power
Stochastic Collision Energy Loss: Energy Straggling
Introduction
One-Dimensional Continuity Equation
Asymmetric Probability Distribution Functions for DeltaE
Introduction
Vavilov Probability Distribution Function
Gaussian Limit to the Vavilov Probability Distribution Function
Landau Limit to the Vavilov Probability Distribution Function
Practical Methods of Calculating the Vavilov pdf
Introduction
Edgeworth Series
Fourier Series Solution
Distorted Log-Normal Distribution
Vavilov pdf for Electron Projectiles
Atomic Electron Binding Effects
Multiple Elastic Scattering
Introduction
Multiple Elastic Scattering Theory
Introduction
Fermi-Eyges Theory
Scattering Power
Introduction
Spin-0 Projectile Scattering
Mott Cross Section
Contributions to the Scattering Power from Atomic Electrons
Specific Electron Multiple Scattering Theories
Introduction
Goudsmit-Saunderson Theory
Molière Theory
Bremsstrahlung
Introduction
Classical Electron-Atom Bremsstrahlung Theory
Introduction
Liénhard-Wiechert Retarded Potentials
Radiation Emission
Electromagnetic Fields at a Distance
Radiated Power: Larmor Formula
Classical Radiative Stopping Power
Angular Distribution of Radiation Emission
Spectrum of Radiation Emission
Nonrelativistic Case
Relativistic Case: Weizsäcker-Williams (Virtual Quanta) Method
Quantum Electron-Nuclear Bremmstrahlung: Bethe-Heitler Theory
Introduction
Derivation of the Triple Differential Cross Section
Interaction
Phase-Space Factor
S-Matrix Calculation
Triple Differential Cross Section in the Soft Photon Limit
Bethe-Heitler Bremsstrahlung Differential Cross Section in Photon Energy
Screening Effects
Deviations from the Born Approximation
Further Considerations
Electron-Electron Bremsstrahlung
Positron-Nucleus Bremsstrahlung
Mass Radiative Stopping Power for Electrons
Radiation Length
Collision and Radiative Stopping Powers: A Summary
Range of Charged Particles
Introduction
Continuous Slowing-Down Approximation (CSDA) Range
Projected Range
Range Straggling
Positron-Electron Annihilation
Introduction
Annihilation Probabilities and Cross Sections
General Features
Positron Annihilation on a Bound Atomic Electron
Positron Annihilation on a Free Electron
Positronium
References
Chapter 8: Radiation Fields and Radiometrics
Introduction
Radiation Fields
Phase Space
Particle Number, Radiant Energy, and Particle Radiance
Scalar Radiometric Quantities
Particle Flux Density (Particle Fluence Rate)
Particle Fluence
Energy Flux Density (Energy Fluence Rate)
Energy Fluence
Vector Radiometric Quantities
Vector Radiance
Vector Particle Flux Density (Vector Particle Fluence Rate)
Vector Particle Fluence
Vector Energy Flux Density (Vector Energy Fluence Rate)
Vector Energy Fluence
Energy Exchange
Introduction
Stochastic Quantities
Energy Deposit
QDeltam0
QDeltam=0
QDeltam0
Energy Imparted
Energy Transferred
Specific Energy
Lineal Energy
Non-Stochastic Quantities
Kerma
Air Kerma-Rate Constant
Absorbed Dose
Exposure
References
Chapter 9: Radiation Dosimetry: Theory, Detection, and Measurement
Introduction
Radiation Dosimetry: Theory
Primary and Scattered Radiation Fields
Kerma and Absorbed Dose
Introduction
Radiation-Field Based Definitions
Kerma, Absorbed Dose, and Charged Particle Equilibrium
Kerma Per Unit Photon Fluence
Radiation Equilibria
Introduction
Complete Radiation Equilibrium
Charged-Particle Equilibrium
Absorbed Fraction
Collision Kerma and Charged Particle Equilibrium
Collision Kerma and Transient Charged Particle Equilibrium
In-Air Collision Kerma and Exposure
Air Kerma-Rate Constant
Fano´s Theorem
Absorbed Doses at Interfaces Between Different Media
Methods of Calculating the Radiation Flux
Introduction
Analytical Solutions for Geometric Radiation Sources
Introduction
Point Source
Linear Source
Disc Source
An Overview of Monte Carlo Methods
Introduction
Random Number Generator
Analog Sampling
Variance Reduction
Monte Carlo Codes: Examples
MCNP
GEANT4
EGS
Buildup Factor
Introduction
Methods of Determining the Buildup Factor
Measurement
Analytical
Monte Carlo
Analytical Representations of the Buildup Factor
Introduction
Taylor Formula
Geometric Progression Formula
Meisberger Formula
Leichner Formula
Kwok Formula
Effective Attenuation Coefficient
Reciprocity Theorem
Introduction: Point Source and Target
Distributed Source and Target Regions
Reciprocity Theorem Applied to Heterogeneous Media
Dose Point Kernels
Cavity Theory
Introduction
Bragg-Gray Theory
Introduction
Bragg-Gray Relation and Conditions
A Brief Overview of Microdosimetry
Introduction
Linear Energy Transfer and Lineal Energy
Introduction
LET Probability Distribution Functions
Validity Conditions of LET
Lineal Energy
Specific Energy
Radiation Dosimetry: Detection and Measurement
Introduction
Gaseous Radiation Detectors
Introduction
The Theory of Ionization in Gases
Magnitude of Initial Ionization Produced and the Fano Factor
Ion and Electron Motions in a Gas With an Electric Field Applied
M1 Regions: Ionization Chamber
M1 Regions: Proportional Chamber and Geiger-Müller Counter
Introduction
Electric Field Requirements for Gas Multiplication
Ionization and Space-Charge Effects
Gas Multiplication
Fill Gas Requirements for the Proportional Region
Geiger-Müller Region
Fill Gasses in the Geiger-Müller Region
Applications of Gaseous Radiation Detectors in Nuclear Medicine
Ionization Chambers
Proportional Chambers
Geiger-Müller Counters
Scintillation Detectors
Introduction
Scintillation Theory
Inorganic Scintillators
Organic Scintillators
Light Collection
Light Conversion and Electron Multiplications
Photocathode
Dynode Chain
Position-Sensitive Photomultiplier Tubes
Scintillation Spectroscopy
MOSFET
Thermoluminescent Dosimetry
Introduction
Theory of Thermoluminescence
Thermoluminescent Dosimetry Materials and Considerations
References
Chapter 10: Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation
Introduction
Radiobiology of the Mammalian Cell
Introduction
Structure of the Mammalian Cell
Cellular Structure
Types of Mammalian Cells
DNA
Chromatin, Chromosomes, and Chromatids
Proliferation and Cell Cycle
Radiation-Induced Damageto the Cell
Introduction
Mechanisms of Radiation-Induced Damage
Indirect Effect
Direct Effect
Relative Contributions
Radiation-Induced DNA Lesions
Introduction
Base Alterations
Single-Strand Breaks
Double-Strand Breaks
Summary
Chromosome and Chromatid Aberrations
Lethal
Dicentric
Centric Ring
Anaphase Bridge or Interarm Aberration
Nonlethal
Symmetric Translocation
Radiation-Induced Cell Death
Introduction
Mitotic Death
Interphase Death and Apoptosis
Bystander Effect
Categories of Radiation-Induced Cell Damage
Introduction
Sublethal Damage
Potentially Lethal Damage
Germ-Cell Damage
Introduction
Oogenesis
Spermatogenesis
In Vitro Cell Survival Curves
Introduction
Single-Target Model
Multiple-Target Models
Modified Multiple-Target Model
Linear-Quadratic Model
Radiation Sensitivity of Mammalian Cells
Introduction
Cell Cycle and Age
Relative Biological Effectiveness
Linear Energy Transfer
Absorbed Dose Rate
Hypoxia
RBE and OER as Functions of LET
Cell Proliferation Kinetics and Radiosensitivity
Repair of Radiation-Induced Damage
Introduction
Repair of Sublethal Damage
The Four ``Rs´´ of Radiobiology
Radiation-Induced Mutations
Introduction
Oncogene Activation
Inactivation of Tumor-Suppressor Genes
Germ-Cell Mutations
The Linear-Quadratic Dose-Response Model for Low-LET Radiation
Introduction
DSB Repair Kinetics
First-Order Repair Kinetics
Binary DSB Misrepair
Kinetics of DSB Induction, Repair and Misrepair, and Cell Survival
Lea-Catcheside Dose-Protraction Factor
Constant Absorbed Dose Rate for Finite Irradiation Time
Exponentially-Decreasing Absorbed Dose Rate
Biologically Equivalent Dose
Effects of Repopulation
Applications of the Linear-Quadratic Model to Internal Radiation Dosimetry
Introduction
α/beta Ratios
Human Somatic Effects of Ionizing Radiation
Introduction
Epidemiological Sources of Human Data
Nuclear Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Medical Exposures: Examples
Secondary Neoplasia in Radiotherapy Patients
Cancers Arising from Diagnostic Imaging Procedures
Occupational Exposures
Miners
Radiologists
Nuclear Workers
Radium Dial Painters
Chernobyl
Radiation Pathologies
Introduction
Cerebrovascular Syndrome
Gastrointestinal Syndrome
Hematopoietic Syndrome
Deterministic (Non-Stochastic) Effects
Introduction
Erythema and Epilation
Sterilization
Cataractogenesis
Stochastic Effects
Introduction
Radiation Carcinogenesis
Leukemia
Breast Cancer
Thyroid Cancer
Hereditary Effects
Antenatal Effects
Introduction
Embryonic Death
Microcephaly and Mental Retardation
Childhood Cancer
Radiation Risks Presented to the Diagnostic Nuclear Medicine Patient
Introduction
ICRP Recommendations
Equivalent (Radiation Weighted) Dose
Introduction
Radiation Weighting Factor, wR
Effective Dose
Introduction
Tissue Weighting Factor, wT
Additional Considerations
Gonadal Absorbed Dose
Esophagus/Thymus Absorbed Dose
Colon Absorbed Dose
Use of the Effective Dose in Nuclear Medicine
Radiobiology Considerations for the Therapeutic Nuclear Medicine Patient
Introduction
Tumor Control Probability
Normal Tissue Complication Probability
Selection of Isotopes forRadionuclide Therapy
References
Chapter 11: Nuclear Medicine Dosimetry
Introduction
Development of Radiopharmaceuticals
Introduction
Preclinical
Phase I
Phase II
Phase III
Clinical Nuclear Medicine Applications
Diagnostic Radiopharmaceuticals
Therapeutic Radiopharmaceuticals
History of Nuclear Medicine Radiation Dosimetry
Introduction
Early Biodistribution Measurements
Introduction
ADME
Administration
Distribution
Metabolism
Excretion
Excretion of Administered Radium
In Vivo Measurement of Blood Circulation Time
Radionuclide Tracers: de Hevesy
Commentary
Marinelli-Quimby-Hine Method of Internal Radiation Dosimetry Calculations
Modern Methods of Nuclear Medicine Radiation Dosimetry
Introduction
Sources of Data
Introduction
Radiation and Nuclear Data
Anatomical and Physiological Data
MIRD Schema
Introduction
The Fundamental MIRD Equation
Derivation of the Fundamental MIRD Equation
Evaluation of the S-Factor
Absorbed Dose Contributions from beta-Particle Bremsstrahlung
Normalized Cumulated Activity
Matrix-Vector Representation of the Fundamental MIRD Equation
Variations in S-factor Values Due to Changes in Regions´ Masses
MIRD Source and Target Regions
ICRP Method
Suborgan Dimension Calculations
Internal Radiation Dosimetry Calculation Software
Introduction
MIRDOSE
OLINDA/EXM
OEDIPE
AIDE
PLEIADES
MABDOSE
MINERVA
CELLDOSE
RADAR
References
Chapter 12: Anthropomorphic Phantoms and Models of Biological Systems
Anthropomorphic Whole-Body Phantoms
Introduction
Reference Man
Introduction
ICRP Reference Man
Non-Western Reference Men
Stylized Whole-Body Phantoms
Introduction
Brownell-Ellet-Reddy Phantoms
Snyder and Snyder-Fisher Phantoms
Oak Ridge National Laboratory Phantom Series
Introduction
Cristy-Eckerman Phantoms
Stabin Phantoms of the Female Adult and the Pregnant Female
Non-Western Populations
Voxellated (Tomographic) Whole-Body Phantoms
Introduction
Construction Methods
Zubal Phantoms
GSF Phantom Series
University of Florida Pediatric Phantom Series
NORMAN Whole-Body Phantom
MAX and FAX Whole-Body Phantoms
VIP-MAN Whole-Body Phantom
Non-Western Populations
Introduction
Japanese Phantoms
Korean Phantoms
Chinese Phantom (CNMAN)
Hybrid Phantoms
Models of Biological Systems
Introduction
Respiratory System
Introduction
Anatomy
ICRP Models of the Respiratory System
ICRP Publication 30 Model
ICRP Publication 66 Model
MIRD Report 18 Ventilation Model
Introduction
Continuous Flow
Rebreathing
Aerosol
Gastrointestinal Tract
Introduction
Anatomy
ICRP Publication 30 Model
ICRP Publication 100 Model
Intestinal Wall as a Source Region
Kidney
Introduction
Anatomy
MIRD Renal Models
MIRD Pamphlet 5 and Revision
MIRD Pamphlet 19 Model
Other Renal Models
McAfee Model
Blau Model
Cristy-Eckerman Model
Radiobiology Considerations
Urinary Bladder
Introduction
Anatomy
Static Urinary Bladder Model
Dynamic Urinary Models: The Cloutier Model
Derivation
Urinary Bladder Voiding Interval, TV
Other Dynamic Models of the Urinary Bladder
Introduction
Snyder and Ford Model
MIRD Pamphlet 14 and 14 (Revised) Models
Head and Brain
Introduction
MIRD Pamphlet 15 Model
Cardiac Wall and Contents
Models
Isolating Activities in Cardiac Wall and Contents
Bone and Red Bone Marrow
Introduction
Anatomy and Histology
Skeleton
Bone
Bone Marrow
Bone and Bone Marrow Models
Spiers´ Models
Geometrical Models
MIRD 11 Model
ICRP Publication 30 Model
Eckerman and Stabin Model
Bouchet Model
Comparison of Models of Eckerman and Stabin and Bouchet
Endosteum Thickness
Red Bone Marrow Dosimetry
Peritoneal Cavity
Tumors (Spheres)
Prostate Gland
Rectum
References
Chapter 13: The Biodistribution (I): Preclinical
Introduction
Ethical and Regulatory Requirements of Preclinical Research
Means of Acquiring Preclinical Biodistribution Data
Introduction
Dissection
Preclinical Imaging
Data Acquisition Times
Sample Sizes
Animal Phantoms
Introduction
Examples of Animal Phantoms
Allometric Scaling of Animal Biodistribution Data to the Human
Introduction
b=0
k=$$ {{\curr 1}}{\bf /}{{{\curr m}}_{{{\cur
Metabolic Rate Scaling
Combined Organ Mass and Metabolic Rate Scalings
Discussion
Permeability or Blood Flow Transfer
Sum of Interspecies-Scaled Normalized Cumulated Activities
Relative Organ Mass Scaling
Metabolic Rate Scaling
Combined Relative Organ Mass and Metabolic Rate Scaling
Validation
References
Chapter 14: The Biodistribution (II): Human
Introduction
Data Collection
Introduction
Source Regions: Definitionand Segmentation
Data Acquisition Times
Image-Based Data
Assay-Based Data
Introduction
Whole Blood and Plasma
Excreta
Sample Size
Nonimaging Quantification Methods
Introduction
In Vivo Nonimaging Techniques
Thermoluminescent Dosimetry
MOSFET
Scintillator Probe
Other Means
In Vitro Measurements
Introduction
Whole Blood
Plasma
Urine
Feces
Imaging Quantification Methods
Introduction
Single-Photon-Emitting Radionuclides
Conjugate-View Planar Scintigraphy
Method
Dead-Time Correction
Transmission Factor
Self-Attenuation Correction Factor
Scatter Correction
Introduction
Photon Energy-Discrimination Methods
Buildup Factor Methods
Background Correction Methods
Simple Subtraction
Bilinear Interpolation
Cauchy Integral Method
Correction for Over-Subtraction (I) Thomas Method
Correction for Over-Subtraction (II) Buijs Method
Correction for Over-Subtraction (III) Kojima Method
Overlapping Regions of Activity
Collimator Selection
Validation of the Conjugate-View Method
Quantitative SPECT for Dosimetry Calculations
Introduction
Scatter Compensation
Attenuation Correction
Reconstruction
Positron-Emitting Radionuclides
Introduction
Photon Detection in PET
Event Types
Random Events
Scatter Events
Introduction
Performance Metrics
Dead-Time Correction
Data Acquisition and Corrections in PET
Two-Dimensional and Three-Dimensional Acquisition Modes
Attenuation Correction
Normalization
Biodistribution Acquisitions with PET
PET Scanner Characteristics Relevant to Biodistribution Acquisitions
Whole-Body PET Acquisitions for Biodistribution and Dosimetry
Biodistribution Evaluation from PET Images
Radiation Dosimetry of Positron-Emitting Radionuclides
Imaging of Bremsstrahlung from beta-Emitting Radionuclides and Activity Quantification
Red Bone Marrow Activity
Introduction
In Vivo Imaging Estimation of Red Bone Marrow Activity
In Vitro Estimation of Red Bone Marrow Activity
Estimation of Red Bone MarrowAbsorbed Dose
References
Chapter 15: The Biodistribution (III): Analysis
Introduction
Normalized Cumulated Activity
Introduction
Analytical Fits to Activity Data
Introduction
Multiexponential Functions
Introduction
Least-Squares Analysis
Exponential Stripping
Nonmonotonic Biexponential/Gamma Variate
Numerical Methods
Extrapolation Beyond the Last Time Point
Uncertainty Analysis of the MIRD Formalism
Introduction
Sources of Uncertainty and Variability
Introduction
Uncertainty in Nuclear Decay Data
Uncertainty in the Derived Cumulated Activity Value
Uncertainty in Anatomic Modeling
References
Chapter 16: The Ethics of Using Human Subjects in Clinical Trials Involving Radiopharmaceuticals
Introduction
Human Subjects in Biomedical Research: General Concepts
Introduction
Declaration of Helsinki
World Health OrganizationRecommendations
Practical Considerations
Magnitudes of Risks Associatedwith Nuclear Medicine Research
Summary
References
Chapter 17: The Future of Nuclear Medicine Radiation Dosimetry
Introduction
Single-Photon Radionuclide Imaging Technology
Reference Anthropomorphic Phantoms in Diagnostic Nuclear Medicine Radiation Dosimetry
Patient-Specific Radionuclide Therapy Planning
New Radionuclide Delivery Vectors
New Means of In Vivo Radiation Dosimetry Measurement
New Estimates of Radiation Risk
References
Appendix
Appendix A Nuclear Form Factor for a
Gaussian Charge Distribution
Appendix B Nuclear Form Factor for the
Woods–Saxon Charge Distribution
Appendix C Pair Production Energy
Threshold
Index