Nuclear Energy: Principles, Practices, and Prospects

✍ Scribed by David Bodansky

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2004
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 701
• Edition: 2nd
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

The world faces serious difficulties in obtaining the energy that will be needed in coming decades for a growing population, especially given the problem of climate change caused by fossil fuel use. This book presents a view of nuclear energy as an important carbon-free energy option. It discusses the nuclear fuel cycle, the types of reactors used today and proposed for the future, nuclear waste disposal, reactor accidents and reactor safety, nuclear weapon proliferation, and the cost of electric power. To provide background for these discussions, the book begins with chapters on the history of the development and use of nuclear energy, the health effects of ionizing radiation, and the basic physics principles of reactor operation.

The text has been rewritten and substantially expanded for this edition, to reflect changes that have taken place in the eight years since the publication of the first edition and to provide greater coverage of key topics. These include the Yucca Mountain repository plans, designs for next-generation reactors, weapons proliferation and terrorism threats, the potential of alternatives to nuclear energy, and controversies about low-level radiation.

Acclaim for the first edition:

''…The book provides a superb background for scientists and those in technical fields. It provides probably all the information that many people, including government policy makers, will ever need...[a] well-written and balanced book. This book is recommended for anyone who wants a broad technical background on nuclear energy.'' -American Journal of Physics

✦ Table of Contents

Contents......Page 11
Preface to the Second Edition......Page 6
Preface to the First Edition......Page 9
1.1.1 The Importance of Energy......Page 23
1.1.2 Energy Use Patterns......Page 24
1.1.3 The Role of Electricity......Page 26
1.2.1 The Need to Replace Fossil Fuels......Page 29
1.2.2 Limitations on Fossil Fuel Supplies......Page 30
1.2.3 Global Climate Change......Page 33
1.3.1 Alternatives to Fossil Fuels......Page 36
1.3.2 The Potential Role of Nuclear Energy......Page 39
1.3.4 The Status of Nuclear Energy......Page 40
References......Page 44
2.1 Present Status of Nuclear Power......Page 46
2.2.1 Speculations Before the Discovery of Fission......Page 48
2.2.2 Fission and the First Reactors......Page 50
2.3.1 Immediate Postwar Developments......Page 52
2.3.2 History of U.S. Reactor Orders and Construction......Page 54
2.4.1 Permanent Reactor Closures......Page 57
2.4.2 Capacity Factors......Page 60
2.4.4 Renewal of Reactor Operating Licenses......Page 62
2.5.1 Early History of Nuclear Programs......Page 63
2.5.2 Nuclear Power Since 1973......Page 64
2.5.3 Planned Construction of New Reactors......Page 66
2.6.1 France......Page 68
2.6.2 Japan......Page 69
2.6.3 Other Countries......Page 70
2.7 Failures of Prediction......Page 74
References......Page 75
3.1 Brief History......Page 78
3.2.1 Radiation Exposure and Radiation Dose......Page 79
3.2.2 Basic Units of Exposure and Dose......Page 80
3.2.3 Effective Dose Equivalent or Effective Dose......Page 83
3.3.1 Half-life and Mean Life......Page 84
3.3.2 Units of Radioactivity......Page 85
3.3.3 Specific Activity......Page 86
3.4.1 Origin of Natural Radioactivity......Page 87
3.4.2 Radioactive Series in Nature......Page 89
3.4.3 Concentrations of Radionuclides in the Environment......Page 91
3.5.1 Natural Sources of Radiation......Page 94
3.5.2 Radiation Doses from Medical Procedures......Page 98
3.5.3 Other Sources of Radiation......Page 99
3.5.4 Summary......Page 102
References......Page 103
4.1.1 Agencies and Groups Carrying out Radiation Studies......Page 105
4.1.2 Types of Studies......Page 106
4.2.1 Deterministic Effects......Page 107
4.2.2 Stochastic Effects: Observational Evidence for Cancer at High Doses......Page 108
4.3.1 Importance of Low Doses......Page 111
4.3.2 Observational Evidence for Cancer at Low Dose Rates......Page 112
4.3.3 The Shape of the Dose–Response Curve......Page 116
4.3.4 Conclusions of Advisory Bodies on Low-Dose Effects......Page 120
4.3.5 Genetic Effects......Page 124
4.4.1 Standards for the General Public......Page 125
4.4.2 Standards for Occupational Exposures......Page 127
4.4.3 Alternative Risk Criteria......Page 128
4.4.4 Collective Doses and de Minimis Levels......Page 130
4.5.1 Radium-226......Page 131
4.5.2 Radon-222......Page 132
4.5.3 Neptunium-237......Page 135
References......Page 138
5.1.1 Neutron Reactions of Importance in Reactors......Page 142
5.1.2 Reaction Cross Sections......Page 144
5.2.1 Observed Cross Sections......Page 147
5.2.2 Shape of the Resonance Peak......Page 149
5.2.3 Level Widths and Doppler Broadening......Page 150
5.3 Cross Sections in the Continuum Region......Page 151
5.4.2 Thermal Neutrons......Page 153
References......Page 155
6.1 Discovery of Fission......Page 157
6.2.2 Separation Energies and Fissionability......Page 159
6.2.3 Fission Cross Sections with Fast and Thermal Neutrons......Page 161
6.3.1 Mass Distribution of Fission Fragments......Page 162
6.3.2 Neutron Emission......Page 164
6.3.3 Decay of Fission Fragments......Page 166
6.4.1 Energy of Fission Fragments......Page 167
6.4.2 Total Energy Budget......Page 168
References......Page 169
7.1.1 General Considerations......Page 171
7.1.2 Formalism for Describing the Multiplication Factor......Page 173
7.1.3 Numerical Values of Thermal Reactor Parameters......Page 175
7.2.1 Role of Moderators......Page 176
7.2.2 Moderating Ratio......Page 178
7.3.2 Buildup of Reaction Rate......Page 180
7.4 Conversion Ratio and Production of Plutonium in Thermal Reactors......Page 182
7.5.2 Controls......Page 184
7.5.3 Xenon Poisoning......Page 185
References......Page 186
8.1.1 Uses of Reactors......Page 188
8.1.2 Classifications of Reactors......Page 189
8.1.3 Components of Conventional Reactors......Page 190
8.1.4 World Inventory of Reactor Types......Page 193
8.2.2 Components of a Light Water Reactor......Page 198
8.2.3 PWR Reactor Cores......Page 202
8.3.2 Achievement of High Conversion Ratios in Thermal Reactors......Page 203
8.3.3 Fast Breeder Reactors......Page 205
8.4 The Natural Reactor at Oklo......Page 208
References......Page 209
9.1.1 Types of Fuel Cycle......Page 210
9.2.1 Uranium Mining and Milling......Page 212
9.2.2 Enrichment of Uranium......Page 215
9.2.3 Fuel Fabrication......Page 221
9.3.1 Burnup as a Measure of Fuel Utilization......Page 222
9.3.2 Uranium Consumption and Plutonium Production......Page 225
9.3.3 Energy from Consumption of Fuel......Page 227
9.3.4 Uranium Ore Requirement......Page 229
9.4.1 Handling of Spent Fuel......Page 230
9.4.2 Reprocessing......Page 231
9.4.3 Alternative Reprocessing and Fuel Cycle Candidates......Page 235
9.4.4 Waste Disposal......Page 237
9.5.1 Price of Uranium......Page 238
9.5.2 Estimates of Uranium Resources......Page 239
9.5.3 Uranium from Seawater......Page 242
9.5.4 Impact of Fuel Cycle Changes and Breeder Reactors......Page 243
References......Page 244
10.1.1 The Nature of the Problem......Page 247
10.1.2 Military and Civilian Wastes......Page 248
10.1.3 High- and Low-Level Wastes......Page 249
10.1.4 Inventories of U.S. Nuclear Wastes......Page 250
10.1.5 Measures of Waste Magnitudes......Page 251
10.2.1 Mass and Volume per GWyr......Page 253
10.2.2 Radioactivity in Waste Products......Page 254
10.2.3 Heat Production......Page 258
10.3.1 Approaches to Examining Hazards......Page 260
10.3.2 Comparisons Based on Water Dilution Volume......Page 261
10.3.3 Comparisons of Activity in Spent Fuel and in Earth's Crust......Page 265
References......Page 267
11.1.1 Overview of Possible Stages......Page 268
11.1.2 Storage of Spent Fuel at Reactor Sites......Page 269
11.1.3 Interim Storage of Waste or Spent Fuel at Centralized Facilities......Page 272
11.1.4 Nuclear Waste Transportation......Page 275
11.2.1 Multiple Barriers in Geologic Disposal......Page 281
11.2.2 Alternative Host Rocks for a Geologic Repository......Page 282
11.2.3 Motion of Water and Radionuclides Through Surrounding Medium......Page 284
11.2.4 Thermal Loading of the Repository......Page 287
11.2.5 The Waste Package......Page 288
11.3.1 Variants of Geologic Disposal......Page 292
11.3.2 Subseabed Disposal......Page 293
11.3.3 Partitioning and Transmutation of Radionuclides......Page 296
11.4 Worldwide Status of Nuclear Waste Disposal Plans......Page 300
References......Page 302
12.1.1 Brief History of Planning Efforts......Page 306
12.1.2 Organizations Involved in Waste Management Policy......Page 308
12.1.3 Congressional Role in the Site-Selection Process......Page 311
12.2.1 Schedule for the Yucca Mountain Project......Page 312
12.2.2 Physical Features of the Site......Page 314
12.2.3 The Waste Inventory......Page 316
12.2.4 The Nuclear Waste Fund......Page 317
12.3.1 The Protection Requirement......Page 318
12.3.2 Defense-in-Depth......Page 319
12.3.3 Engineered Barriers......Page 320
12.3.4 Natural Barriers......Page 323
12.3.5 The Thermal Loading of the Repository......Page 326
12.4.1 The TSPA Approach......Page 327
12.4.2 The DOE Nominal Scenario......Page 331
12.4.3 Disruptive Scenarios......Page 335
12.4.4 EPRI's TSPA Calculations......Page 339
12.5.1 Evaluations of Yucca Mountain Analyses......Page 341
12.5.2 Continuing Technical Issues......Page 344
12.5.3 Further Institutional Measures......Page 345
12.5.4 Overview of Yucca Mountain Prospects......Page 346
13.1.1 The Centrality of the Issue......Page 351
13.1.2 General Considerations in Nuclear Waste Disposal......Page 352
13.2.1 The Original Formulation of 40CFR191......Page 353
13.2.2 The [sup(14)]C Problem......Page 354
13.2.4 The NAS Recommendations......Page 356
13.2.5 EPA's 2001 Standards: 40CFR197......Page 358
13.3.1 The General Recognition of the Problem......Page 361
13.3.2 Picture of Future Generations......Page 363
13.3.3 Discounting with Time......Page 365
13.4.1 The Decision-Making Process......Page 367
13.4.2 Technological Optimism and Its Possible Traps......Page 371
13.4.3 A Surrogate Issue?......Page 372
13.5.1 A Step-by-Step Approach......Page 373
13.5.2 Framework for Considering Intergenerational Responsibilities......Page 376
13.5.3 Putting the Risks into Perspective......Page 377
References......Page 381
14.1.1 Assessments of Commercial Reactor Safety......Page 384
14.1.2 The Nature of Reactor Risks......Page 385
14.1.3 Means of Achieving Reactor Safety......Page 387
14.1.4 Measures of Harm and Risk in Reactor Accidents......Page 390
14.2.1 Criticality Accidents and Feedback Mechanisms......Page 392
14.2.2 Heat Removal and Loss-of-Coolant Accidents......Page 394
14.3.1 Deterministic Safety Assessment......Page 396
14.3.2 Probabilistic Risk Assessment......Page 397
14.3.3 Results of the Reactor Safety Study......Page 402
14.4.1 Institutional Responses......Page 405
14.4.2 1990 NRC Analysis: NUREG-1150......Page 406
14.4.3 Predictions of Core Damage and Precursor Analyses......Page 412
14.4.4 Other Indications of Performance......Page 414
14.5.1 U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Position......Page 416
14.5.3 Standards for Future Reactors: How Safe Is Safe Enough?......Page 420
References......Page 421
15.1 Historical Overview of Reactor Accidents......Page 424
15.2.1 The Early History of the TMI Accident......Page 427
15.2.2 Evolution of the TMI Accident......Page 430
15.2.3 Effects of the TMI Accident......Page 431
15.3.1 The Chernobyl Reactors......Page 434
15.3.2 History of the Chernobyl Accident......Page 435
15.3.3 Release of Radioactivity from Chernobyl......Page 438
15.3.4 Observations of Health Effects of Chernobyl Accident......Page 439
15.3.5 Radiation Exposures at Chernobyl and Vicinity......Page 441
15.3.6 Worldwide Radiation Exposures from Chernobyl......Page 445
15.3.7 General Effects of the Chernobyl Accident......Page 447
References......Page 449
16.1.1 The End of the First Era of Nuclear Power......Page 452
16.1.2 Important Attributes of Future Reactors......Page 453
16.1.3 Reactor Size......Page 454
16.1.4 U.S. Licensing Procedures......Page 456
16.2.1 Classification of Reactors by Generation......Page 457
16.2.2 U.S. DOE Near-Term Deployment Roadmap......Page 458
16.2.3 Illustrative Compilations of Reactor Designs......Page 461
16.3.1 Evolutionary Reactors Licensed by the U.S. NRC......Page 462
16.3.2 Innovative Light Water Reactors......Page 465
16.4.1 HTGR Options......Page 472
16.4.2 Historical Background of Graphite-Moderated Reactors......Page 473
16.4.3 General Features of Present HTGR Designs......Page 475
16.4.4 HTGR Configurations......Page 477
16.5.1 Recent United States Programs......Page 480
16.5.2 Safety Features of LMRs......Page 481
16.6.1 Overview of the Program......Page 483
16.6.2 Systems Emphasized in the United States......Page 485
16.7.1 Fusion......Page 488
16.7.2 Accelerator-Driven Fission......Page 489
References......Page 490
17.1 Concerns About Links Between Nuclear Power and Nuclear Weapons......Page 494
17.2.1 Basic Characteristics of Fission Bombs......Page 495
17.2.2 Effects of Nuclear Bombs......Page 498
17.2.3 Critical Mass for Nuclear Weapons......Page 499
17.2.4 Buildup of a Chain Reaction......Page 502
17.3 Uranium and Nuclear Weapons......Page 503
17.4.1 Explosive Properties of Plutonium......Page 505
17.4.2 Reactor-Grade Plutonium as a Weapons Material......Page 509
17.4.3 Production of Plutonium in Reactors......Page 512
17.5.1 The Range of Terrorist Threats......Page 514
17.5.2 The Nature of the Nuclear Terrorist Threat......Page 516
17.5.3 Nuclear Bombs......Page 517
17.5.4 Radiological Dispersion Devices ("Dirty Bombs")......Page 523
17.5.5 Attacks on Nuclear Power Plants......Page 525
References......Page 527
18.1.1 International Treaties......Page 530
18.1.2 Forms of Proliferation......Page 535
18.1.3 Means for Obtaining Fissile Material......Page 537
18.1.4 Nuclear Weapons Inventories......Page 538
18.2.1 Official Nuclear-Weapon States......Page 539
18.2.2 Other Countries with Announced Weapons Programs......Page 543
18.2.3 Countries Believed to Have or Be Seeking Nuclear Weapons......Page 546
18.2.4 Countries That Have Abandoned Nuclear Weapons Programs......Page 552
18.3.1 Potential Role of Nuclear Power in Weapons Proliferation......Page 555
18.3.2 Weapons Dangers for Different Categories of Countries......Page 558
18.3.3 Reducing Proliferation Dangers from Nuclear Power......Page 561
18.3.4 Nuclear Power and Moderation of Weapons Dangers......Page 563
18.3.5 Policy Options for the United States......Page 567
References......Page 568
19.1 Generation Costs and External Costs......Page 572
19.2.1 Who Provides Electricity?......Page 574
19.2.2 The Role of Government in Electricity Generation Decisions......Page 576
19.3.1 Calculation of Costs......Page 577
19.3.2 Recent Trends in Electricity Prices......Page 579
19.3.3 Costs of Nuclear and Fossil Fuel Electricity Sources......Page 580
19.4.1 The Role of Cost Differences......Page 584
19.4.2 Leveling or Tilting the Playing Field......Page 585
19.4.3 Mechanisms for Encouraging or Discouraging Electricity Choices......Page 587
19.4.4 Reactor Longevity......Page 588
References......Page 589
20.1.1 Nature of the Debate......Page 591
20.1.3 External Factors Impacting Nuclear Energy......Page 593
20.2.1 Need for Additional Generating Capacity......Page 594
20.2.2 Fossil Fuels with Low CO[sub(2)] Emissions......Page 595
20.2.3 Renewable Sources......Page 597
20.3.1 Projection of Demand......Page 601
20.3.2 Production of Hydrogen......Page 604
20.3.3 Desalination of Seawater......Page 607
20.3.4 Possible Difficulties in Nuclear Expansion......Page 609
20.4.2 United States......Page 612
20.4.3 Asia......Page 615
20.5.1 Categories of Issues......Page 617
20.5.2 Proliferation Risks and Nuclear Power......Page 618
20.5.3 Nuclear Power and a Desirable Society......Page 619
20.5.4 The Road to Decisions......Page 622
20.5.5 Predictions and their Uncertainty......Page 625
References......Page 627
A.1.1 Atoms and Their Constituents......Page 631
A.1.3 Isotopes and Isobars......Page 632
A.2.2 Mass......Page 633
A.2.3 Avogadro's Number and the Mole......Page 634
A.2.5 Mass–Energy Equivalence......Page 635
A.3.2 Isotopes and Elements......Page 636
A.3.3 Binding Energy, B......Page 637
A.4 Energy States and Photons......Page 638
A.5 Nuclear Systematics......Page 640
A.6.1 Particles Emitted in Radioactive Decay......Page 642
A.6.2 Alpha-Particle Emission......Page 643
A.6.3 Beta-Particle Emission......Page 645
A.6.4 Gamma-Ray Emission......Page 647
A.7.2 Mean Life and Half-Life......Page 648
A.7.3 Nuclei Remaining after a Given Time Interval......Page 649
A.7.4 Decay Chains......Page 650
References......Page 651
B General Tables......Page 652
Acronyms and Abbreviations......Page 657
A......Page 664
B......Page 665
C......Page 666
D......Page 668
F......Page 670
G......Page 671
I......Page 672
L......Page 673
M......Page 674
N......Page 675
P......Page 676
R......Page 678
S......Page 679
T......Page 680
V......Page 681
Z......Page 682
B......Page 683
C......Page 684
E......Page 686
F......Page 687
G......Page 688
I......Page 689
L......Page 690
N......Page 691
P......Page 694
R......Page 695
S......Page 698
U......Page 699
W......Page 700
Z......Page 701

✦ Subjects

Топливно-энергетический комплекс;Ядерная и термоядерная энергетика;