Cover......Page 1
Half Title......Page 2
Nuclear Chemistry......Page 3
Copyright......Page 4
Foreword......Page 6
Preface......Page 7
Contents......Page 9
About the Authors......Page 16
1.2 Atom......Page 17
1.4 Shell Model......Page 18
1.5 Binding Energy of Nucleus......Page 20
1.6 Fission Reaction......Page 22
1.6.1 Thorium Fission......Page 23
1.6.2 Fusion Reaction......Page 24
1.7 Stability of Nucleon......Page 25
2.1 Introduction......Page 28
2.2 Emission of Nuclear Particles......Page 29
2.3.1 Conversion of Neutrons into Protons......Page 31
2.3.2 Conversion of Proton to Neutron......Page 32
2.4 Transition Between Nuclear Energy Levels …......Page 35
2.5 Natural Radioactive Series......Page 37
2.6 Decay Scheme......Page 39
2.6.1 Rate of Decay......Page 40
2.6.3 Radioactive Equilibrium......Page 41
3.2 Reactions Initiated by Charged Particles......Page 47
3.3 Reactions Initiated by Uncharged Particles......Page 48
3.3.3 Nuclear Fission Reaction......Page 49
3.4 Particle Accelerators......Page 51
3.5 Conservation of Mass and Energy......Page 52
3.6 Reaction Cross-Section......Page 53
3.7.2 Conservation of Mass Relationship......Page 55
3.8 Applications of Nuclear Reactions......Page 56
4.2 Types of Interactions......Page 58
4.3.1 α-Particles......Page 59
4.4.1 Electromagnetic Radiation......Page 60
4.4.3 Compton Effect......Page 61
4.4.4 Pair Production......Page 62
4.6 Types of Counters......Page 63
5.1 Introduction......Page 65
5.3.1 Current–Voltage Characteristics of the Ionization Chamber......Page 66
5.4 Nature of Gas to be Used in Ionization Chamber......Page 70
5.5 Regions Suitable for Counting Purposes......Page 71
5.6 Nature of Pulses Produced in Ionization Chamber......Page 72
5.6.1 Conversion of Triangular Pulses to Square Type Pulses......Page 73
5.6.2 Pulses Due to α- and β-Particles......Page 74
5.6.3 Relationship Between Energy of Radiation and Pulse Height......Page 75
5.7 Ionization Counters......Page 76
5.8.1 Design of a Gas Flow Proportional Counter......Page 78
5.8.2 Process of Ion-Pair Formation......Page 79
5.8.3 Operating Condition......Page 80
5.8.4 Type of Radioactivity Measurable by the Counter......Page 81
5.8.6 Pulse Height Analyzer in Proportional Counter......Page 82
5.8.7 Advantages of Gas Flow Proportional Counter......Page 84
5.9.1 Design of the End-Window G.M. Counter......Page 87
5.9.2 Principle of a G.M. Counter......Page 88
5.10 Liquid Geiger–Müller Counter......Page 89
5.10.3 Necessary Precautions While Using Liquid G.M. Counter......Page 90
5.11 Current–Voltage Characteristics of the G.M. Counter......Page 94
5.12.1 What is a Dead Time?......Page 96
5.12.2 Impact of Dead Time on the Anode......Page 97
5.12.4 Determination of Dead Time of the Counter......Page 99
5.13.1 Organic Gas Quenched G.M. Counter......Page 102
5.14 Window Thickness......Page 103
5.15 Limitations of Ionization Counters......Page 104
6.2 Scintillation Counter......Page 106
6.3 Principle of Scintillation Counter......Page 107
6.4 Components of a Scintillation Counter......Page 108
6.5 Design of Photomultiplier Tube......Page 109
6.6 Scintillator......Page 110
6.6.1 Inorganic Scintillator......Page 111
6.6.3 Composition of Scintillator......Page 112
6.7.1 Size of the Sample Holder......Page 113
6.7.2 Composition of Sample for Counting......Page 114
6.9 Filter Paper Soaked with Scintillator......Page 115
6.10.1 γ-radiations......Page 116
6.11 Optimum Conditions for Counting......Page 117
6.11.1 Calibration of Pulse Height Analyzer......Page 118
6.12.1 Counting Conditions for β-particles......Page 120
6.13 Quenching Corrections......Page 122
6.13.1 Internal Standard Technique......Page 123
6.13.2 Channel Ratio Technique......Page 124
6.13.3 External Standard Source Techniques......Page 126
6.14 Effect of Multiple Type Radiations on Counting......Page 128
7.3 Principle of Semiconductor Detectors......Page 130
7.3.1 Formation of Band Gap......Page 132
7.3.3 n- and p-Type Materials......Page 133
7.4.1 Formation of Space Charge Region......Page 134
7.4.2 Distribution of Carrier Concentration......Page 135
7.4.3 p-n Junction vis-a-vis Diode......Page 136
7.5 Effect of Radiation on the p-n Junction......Page 137
7.5.1 Design of a Semiconductor Detector......Page 138
7.6 Silicon- and Germanium Lithium-Drifted Detectors......Page 139
7.7.1 Silver Grains in Photographic Plate by α-Particles......Page 140
7.7.2 X-ray Film Badges......Page 141
7.7.3 Emulsion Radio Chromatography......Page 142
7.9 Low-Level Counting......Page 145
7.9.1 Anti-coincidence Counting System......Page 146
7.9.2 Co-incidence Counting System......Page 148
8.1.2 Counting in Form of Suspension......Page 149
8.1.4 Deposition of Sample by Electrolysis......Page 150
8.2 Solid Sample Source......Page 151
8.2.2 Preparation of Solid Sample from Liquid Sample......Page 154
8.2.3 Source from a Slurry......Page 155
9.2 Geometrical Efficiency......Page 156
9.2.1 Self-absorption......Page 158
9.2.2 Backscattering......Page 160
9.2.3 External Absorption......Page 161
9.3 Decay Scheme......Page 162
9.3.1 Tritium......Page 163
9.3.3 Sodium-24......Page 164
9.3.4 Strontium-90......Page 165
9.3.5 Cesium-137......Page 166
10.2 Counter Selection......Page 167
10.4.1 β-Absorption Law and Its Spectrum......Page 168
10.4.3 Graphical Absolute Method......Page 171
10.4.4 Determination of Emax......Page 173
10.6 Photographic Emulsion Technique......Page 174
10.8 Half-Life Determination......Page 175
11.1 Introduction......Page 179
11.2 Statistical Error in Counting......Page 180
11.3.1 Standard Deviation......Page 182
11.3.2 Advantages of Standard Deviation Calculation......Page 184
11.4 Sums and Differences of Counts......Page 185
11.5.1 Division by a Constant Factor......Page 186
11.5.2 Multiplication by Another Count......Page 187
12.2 Biological Effect of Radiation......Page 190
12.3 External Exposure......Page 192
12.4 Internal Absorption......Page 193
12.5 Units of Radiation Dose......Page 194
12.5.2 Rad......Page 195
12.5.4 Maximum Permissible Level......Page 196
12.5.6 Maximum Permissible Body Burden......Page 197
12.5.7 Dose Rate Calculation......Page 198
12.6.2 Shielding......Page 200
12.7.2 Pocket Dosimeter......Page 201
12.8 Design of a Radioactive Tracer Suit......Page 202
12.9 Decontamination of Apparatus......Page 204
12.9.1 Process of Decontamination......Page 205
12.10 Discipline in the Radioactive Laboratory......Page 206
13.1 Introduction......Page 208
13.3.1 Carriers for the Separation......Page 209
13.4 Solvent Extraction......Page 211
13.6 Volatilization and Distillation......Page 212
13.7.1 Paper Chromatography......Page 213
13.7.2 Paper Electrophoresis......Page 215
13.7.3 Ion-Exchange Method......Page 216
13.8 Activation Analysis......Page 218
13.8.1 Theory of the Activation Analysis Technique......Page 219
13.8.2 Experimental Procedures......Page 221
13.8.3 Advantages/Disadvantages of This Technique......Page 222
14.2 Szilard-Chalmers Reactions......Page 224
14.2.1 Szilard-Chalmers Reaction with Organic Substances......Page 226
14.2.2 Szilard-Chalmers Reaction with Inorganic Substances......Page 227
14.3 Application of Szilard-Chalmers Reactions......Page 228
Problem......Page 230
References......Page 238
Index......Page 240