<p>This book assesses the potential effects of biotechnological approaches, particularly genetic modification, on the present state of fiber crop cultivation and sustainable production. Leading international researchers discuss and explain how biotechnology can affect and solve problems in connectio
Novel Biological and Biotechnological Applications in Plant Nematode Management
β Scribed by Mujeebur Rahman Khan (editor)
- Publisher
- Springer
- Year
- 2023
- Tongue
- English
- Leaves
- 543
- Category
- Library
No coin nor oath required. For personal study only.
β¦ Synopsis
The volume focuses on novel and effective biological and biotechnological methods for managing major plant parasitic nematodes in economically important agricultural crops. Nematodes develop a wide variety of interactions with soil microbes and host plants, and cause enormous losses in crop yields equivalent to around USD 173 billion annually. In view of growing concern for pesticide contamination in crops, coupled with ban on several efficacious pesticides, and increasing demand for organic foods, the biological and biotechnological approaches offer a good alternative to chemicals for managing nematode infestations in agricultural crops. The book embodies twenty-two chapters which are arranged in two groups. The first group covers different novel methods of nematode management such as biotechnological, biopesticides, microbial consortia, host resistance, omics technology, transgenics, nano-nematicides, nano-diagnosis, etc. The second groups of chapters describe important nematode problems in major crops such as cereals, vegetables, pulses, spices, wood yielding conifers, etc. Overall, the book collates the latest information on above topics and offers practical solutions to the limitations and challenges in the existing management technologies. This book is of interest and serves up-to-date and elaborated information to agriculture researchers, teachers, scientists, under-graduates, post-graduates, plant nematologists, plant pathologists, plant protectionists, agronomists, horticulturalists, helminthologists, extension workers, and NGOs.
β¦ Table of Contents
Foreword I
Foreword II
Preface
Contents
Editor and Contributors
Contributors
Part I: Novel Methods of Nematode Management
1: Nematode Pests of Agricultural Crops, a Global Overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Root-Knot Nematode, Meloidogyne spp.
1.3 Root Lesion Nematode, Pratylenchus spp.
1.4 Cyst Nematode, Heterodera spp.
1.5 Stem and Bulb Nematode, Ditylenchus spp.
1.6 Potato Cyst Nematode, Globodera spp.
1.7 Citrus Nematode, Tylenchulus spp.
1.8 Dagger Nematodes, Xiphinema spp.
1.9 Borrowing Nematode, Radopholus similis
1.10 Spiral Nematode, Helicotylenchus spp.
1.11 Reniform Nematode, Rotylenchulus sp.
1.12 Foliar Nematodes, Anguina, Aphelenchoides, Bursaphelenchus, Etc.
1.13 Interaction with Other Organisms and Disease Complex
1.14 Management of Plant Nematodes
1.14.1 Cultural Practices
1.14.2 Physical Control
1.14.3 Biological Control
1.14.4 Chemical Control
1.15 Integrated Nematode Management (INM)
1.16 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
2: Nematode Management in Crops; Limitations and Challenges to Meet Future Food Demands
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Preventive Approach
2.3 Physical and Cultural Management
2.4 Crop Rotation
2.5 Trap Crop
2.6 Flooding
2.7 Solarization
2.8 Soil Tillage
2.9 Organic Amendments
2.10 Resistance
2.11 Biological Control
2.12 Predatory Nematodes as Biocontrol Agents
2.13 Chemical Control
2.14 Plant Extracts as Phytonematicides
2.15 Nanotechnology in Nematode Control
2.16 Integrated Nematode Pest Management
2.17 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
3: Novel Biological and Biotechnological Methods of Nematode Management, an Effective Strategy to Enhance Crop Productivity
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Beneficial Fungi
3.3 Beneficial Bacteria
3.4 Microbial-Induced Systemic Resistance
3.5 Agricultural Methods and Biofumigation
3.6 Plant-Derived Products
3.7 Biotechnology in Nematode Management and Crop Productivity
3.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
4: Host Resistance, Current Status, and Emerging Advances
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Current Status of HPR Applications in Management of PPN
4.2.1 Crops and Nematode Genera Involved in HPR
4.2.2 HPR Across Geographical Regions
4.2.3 Efficacy of HPR in Nematode Control
4.3 New Trends in Host Plant Resistance in Plant Nematology
4.3.1 Nematode Effector Molecules
4.3.2 SPRYSEC Proteins
4.3.3 Peptide Mimic Effectors
4.4 New Advancements in Enhancing Host Resistance
4.4.1 Use of RNAi
4.4.2 Cross Kingdom RNAi
4.4.3 Host-Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS)
4.4.4 Spray-Induced Gene Silencing (SIGS)
4.4.5 Engineering Plant Susceptibility Genes
4.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
5: Biocontrol Strategies for Nematode Management, an Overview
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Biocontrol Fungi
5.2.1 Parasitic Fungi
5.2.1.1 Pochonia chlamydosporia (=Verticillium chlamydosporium)
Mechanism of Action
5.2.1.2 Purpureocillium lilacinum (=Paecilomyces lilacinus)
Mechanism of Action
5.2.2 Filamentous Fungi
5.2.2.1 Trichoderma Species
5.2.2.2 Mechanisms of Action
5.3 Biocontrol Bacteria
5.3.1 Pasteuria penetrans
5.3.1.1 Mechanisms of Infection
5.3.2 Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Etc.
5.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
6: Microbial Consortia: An Approach to Enhance the Effectiveness of Beneficial Soil Microbes
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Soil Microorganisms Types
6.2.1 Bacteria
6.2.2 Fungi
6.2.3 Archaea
6.3 Type of Microbial Consortia for Use in Soil
6.3.1 Bacterial Consortia
6.3.2 Fungal-Bacterial Consortia
6.3.3 Other Types of Microorganisms
6.4 The Microbial ConsortiumΒ΄s Interactions
6.5 Microbial Consortia: Mechanisms and Benefits to Enhance the Effectiveness of Soil Microbes
6.6 Direct Methods
6.6.1 Hormone Production in Plants
6.6.2 Nitrogen Fixation
6.7 Solubilization of Minerals and Nitrogen Mineralization
6.8 Microbial Mobilization of Phosphorus in Soil and Other Macro and Micronutrients
6.9 Indirect Mechanisms
6.9.1 Mechanism of Abiotic Stress Reduction and Phytopathogen Suppression
6.9.2 Benefits to Improve the Efficiency of Soil Microbes
6.9.3 The Biotechnological Applications of Soil Consortia
6.10 Opportunities in Engineering and Developing Microbial Consortia
6.11 Conclusions and FuturePerspectives
References
7: Novel Biotechnological Interventions in Plant Nematode Management Technologies
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Biotechnological Interventions
7.2.1 Application of Plant Natural Resistance Genes
7.2.2 Utilizing Genes Encoding Proteinase Inhibitor
7.2.3 Use of Nematicidal Proteins
7.2.4 Use of Plantibodies
7.2.5 Utilization of Peptide Elicitors and Chemodisruptors
7.3 Application of RNA Interference
7.3.1 Utilization of Neuropeptides as a Therapeutic Target
7.3.2 Utilization of Parasitism Genes
7.3.3 Utilization of Genes Regulating Development of the Nematode
7.3.4 Utilizing Genes Regulating the mRNA Metabolism
7.3.5 Genome-Enabled Development of Novel Chemical Nematicides
7.3.6 Ectopic Delivery of dsRNA: Non-transgenic RNAi
7.4 Nematode Resistance Transgenic Crops
7.4.1 Banana
7.4.2 Potato
7.4.3 Rice
7.4.4 Other Crops
7.5 Biosafety Issue of Nematode-Resistant Transgenics
7.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
8: ApplicationsofOmics in the Management of Plant-parasitic Nematodes
8.1 Introduction to Omics
8.2 Genomics in Plant Nematode Management
8.3 Metabolomics in Plant Nematode Management
8.4 Metagenomics in Plant Nematode Management
8.5 Proteomics in Plant Nematode Management
8.6 Transcriptomics in Plant Nematode Management
8.7 Ionomics and Phenomics in Plant Nematode Management
8.8 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
9: Transgenics, Application in Plant Nematode Management
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Role of Nematode Esophageal/Pharyngeal Glands
9.3 Deployment of Plant Resistance (R) Genes
9.4 Exploitation of Protease Inhibitors (PIs)
9.5 Transgenic Expression of Chemodisruptive Peptides
9.6 Utilization of Nematicidal Proteins
9.7 Barnase (Enzyme)-Barstar (Inhibitor) System
9.8 RNAi and Host-Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS) Approach
9.9 Other Alternative Strategies
9.10 The Biosafety of Transgenic Nematode Resistance
9.11 Conclusionand Future Perspectives
References
10: Novel Nanomaterials and Nanoformulations for Nematode Management in Agricultural Crops
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Plant Parasitic Nematodes
10.3 Economic Losses Caused by Nematodes
10.4 Nanotechnology in Nematode Management
10.5 NP Decomposition into Metal Ions
10.6 Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
10.7 Disruption of the Cell Membrane Integrity
10.8 Signal Transduction Disturbance
10.9 Chemotaxis and Motility
10.10 Effect of Nanomaterials on Plant Nematodes
10.11 Metal-Based Nanoparticles and Their Effect on Plant Parasitic Nematodes
10.12 Silver Nanoparticles
10.13 Copper Nanoparticles
10.14 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles
10.15 Other Nanoparticles
10.16 Effect of Green-Synthesized Nanoparticles on Plant Nematodes
10.17 Application of Nanomaterials in Nematode Detection
10.18 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
11: Nematode Disease Diagnosis: Application of Nano-Sensors
11.1 Introduction
11.2 What Are Nano-Sensors?
11.3 How the Nano-Sensors Work?
11.3.1 The Advantage of Nano-Sensors in Diagnosis and Application of Diseases
11.4 Types of Nano-Sensors
11.4.1 Chemical Nano-Sensors
11.4.2 Physical Nano-Sensors
11.4.3 Mechanical Nano-Sensors
11.4.4 Biological Nano-Sensors
11.5 Role of Nano-Sensors in Nematode Disease Diagnosis
11.5.1 DNA as a Nanobiosensor for Nematode Disease Diagnosis
11.5.1.1 Advantages of DNA Using
11.5.2 pH-Sensitive Ratiometric Nano-Sensors
11.5.3 Soil PCR
11.6 Nano-Sensors and Pathogenic Fungi Detection and Diagnosis
11.6.1 Gold Nanoparticles as Nano-Sensors in Pathogenic Fungi Detection
11.6.2 Carbon Nanotubes as Nano-Sensors in Pathogenic Fungi Detection
11.6.3 Quantum Dots Nanoparticles
11.6.4 Nanopore and Pathogenic Fungi Detection and Diagnosis
11.6.5 Nanosilicon Oxide
11.6.6 Copper Oxide Nanoparticles
11.7 Nano-Sensors and Bacterial Diseases Detection and Diagnosis
11.7.1 Silica Nanoparticles
11.7.2 Gold Nanoparticles
11.8 Nano-Sensors and Viral Detection and Diagnosis
11.8.1 Nanopore and Viral Detection
11.8.2 Nanowire and Viral Detection
11.9 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
Part II: Nematode Problems and Their Management
12: Root-Knot Nematodes in Vegetables and Ornamentals and Their Management by Novel Biological and Biotechnological Tools
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Symptoms
12.3 Epidemiology
12.4 Biology
12.5 Host Range
12.6 Yield Loss
12.7 Biological and Biotechnological Tools of Management
12.8 Biological Control
12.9 Biocontrol Fungi
12.10 Predacious Fungi
12.11 Nematode Parasitic Fungi
12.12 Parasites of Vermiform Nematodes
12.13 Parasites of Eggs and Adult Females
12.13.1 Cylindrocarpon Species
12.13.2 Pochonia chlamydosporia
12.13.3 Purpureocillium lilacinum (= Paecilomyces lilacinus)
12.14 Mycorrhizal Fungi
12.15 Root Nodule-Forming Bacteria
12.16 Biocontrol Bacteria
12.17 Nematoxic Metabolite-Producing Bacteria
12.18 Nematode Parasitizing Bacteria
12.19 Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria
12.20 Biotechnological Approaches
12.21 Transgenic Approaches to Control Root-Knot Nematodes
12.21.1 RNAi and Its Application in Root-Knot Nematode Management
12.21.2 Host-Delivered RNAi to Silence Nematode Genes
12.21.3 Characterization of Target-Specific Genes
12.22 Other Functional Genomics Approaches for Helping Target Gene Selection for Gene Silencing
12.22.1 Microarrays with Laser Capture Microdissection
12.22.2 Artificial microRNAs (amiRNAs)
12.22.3 Small RNA Sequencing
12.23 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
13: Root-Knot Nematodes in Cereal and Pulse Crops, and Their Management by Novel Biological and Biotechnological Approaches
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Nematode Infestation in Cereals
13.3 Infestation of Meloidogyne spp., in Cereal and Pulse Crops
13.3.1 Distribution
13.4 Meloidogyne spp. Infesting Cereals
13.4.1 Meloidogyne graminicola
13.4.2 Meloidogyne naasi
13.4.3 Meloidogyne artiellia
13.4.4 Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica
13.4.5 Meloidogyne chitwoodi
13.5 Meloidogyne spp. Infesting Pulse Crops
13.5.1 Meloidogyne incognita
13.5.2 Meloidogyne javanica
13.5.3 Meloidogyne arenaria
13.5.4 Meloidogyne artiella
13.6 Symptoms of Meloidogyne Infestation
13.7 Biology and Life Cycle
13.8 Novel Approaches for Biocontrol of Root-Knot Nematodes
13.9 Bacterial Antagonists
13.10 Fungal Antagonists
13.11 Biotechnological Approaches for the Management of Meloidogyne spp.
13.12 RNAi-Based Nematode Resistance Genes/RNAi-Based Technology
13.13 Proteases Inhibitors Coding Genes
13.14 Nematicidal Proteins
13.15 Chemodisruptive
13.16 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
14: Management of Cyst-Forming Nematodes in Agricultural Crops ThroughNovel Biological and Genetic Engineering Technologies
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Major Cyst Nematode Species Worldwide
14.2.1 Major Heterodera spp. Worldwide
14.2.2 Major Globodera spp. Worldwide
14.3 Soybean Cyst Nematode (Heterodera glycines)
14.3.1 Novel SCN Biological Management Practices
14.3.2 Novel SCN Genetic Engineering Technologies
14.4 Cereal Cyst Nematode (Heterodera avenae)
14.4.1 Novel CCN Biological Management Practices
14.4.2 Novel CCN Genetic Engineering Technologies
14.5 Potato Cyst Nematodes (Globodera pallida and Globoderarostochiensis)
14.5.1 Novel PCN Biological Management Practices
14.5.2 Novel PCN Genetic Engineering Technologies
14.6 Sugar Beet Cyst Nematodes (Heterodera schachtii)
14.6.1 Novel SBCN Biological Management Practices
14.6.2 Novel SBCN Genetic Engineering Technologies
14.7 Corn Cyst Nematodes (Heterodera zeae)
14.7.1 Novel CCN Biological Management Practices
14.7.2 Novel CCN Genetic Engineering Technologies
14.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
15: Stem and Bulb Nematodes in Agricultural Crops and Their Management by Biological and Biotechnological Methods
15.1 Introduction
15.2 The Stem and Bulb Nematode, Ditylenchus dipsaci
15.2.1 Distribution and Host Range
15.2.2 Morphological and Molecular Diagnosis of D. dipsaci
15.2.3 Different Races of D. dipsaci
15.2.4 Biology and Lifecycle
15.2.5 Symptoms
15.3 Traditional Approaches for Management of Stem and Bulb Nematode
15.3.1 Nematode-Free Planting Material
15.3.2 Physical Measures
15.3.3 Crop Rotation
15.3.4 Biofumigation
15.3.5 Host Resistance
15.4 Biological Control of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes
15.4.1 Biocontrol of Stem and Bulb Nematode
15.5 Biotechnological Approaches for Stem and Bulb Nematode Management
15.6 Conclusionand Future Perspectives
References
16: Leaf and Bud Nematodes in Agricultural Crops and Their Management by Biotechnological Approaches
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Plant-Parasitic Nematodes
16.3 Infestation of Food Crops and Its Management
16.3.1 Rice
16.3.1.1 White Tip Caused by Aphelenchoides besseyi
16.3.2 Strawberry
16.3.2.1 Foliar Nematode Disease of Strawberry Caused by Aphelenchoides sp.
16.3.3 Mushroom
16.3.3.1 Mushroom Disease Caused by Aphelenchoides composticola
16.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
17: Dagger and Stubby Nematodes in Agricultural Crops and Their Bio-Management
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Plant-Parasitic Nematodes
17.2.1 Dagger Nematodes
17.2.1.1 Distribution of Dagger Nematodes
17.2.1.2 Biology and Life Cycle
17.2.1.3 Symptoms of Xiphinema spp. Infestation
17.2.1.4 Identification of Dagger Nematodes
17.2.1.5 Detection and Density Approximation
17.2.1.6 Economic Importance of Dagger Nematodes
17.2.2 Stubby-Root Nematodes
17.2.2.1 Distribution of Stubby-Root Nematodes
17.2.2.2 Biology and Life Cycle of Stubby-Root Nematodes
17.2.2.3 Stubby-Root Nematode Hosts
17.2.2.4 Symptoms of Stubby-Root Nematode Infestation
17.2.2.5 Detection and Identification of Stubby-Root Nematodes
17.2.2.6 Importance of Stubby-Root Nematodes
17.3 Bio-Management of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes
17.3.1 Fungi
17.3.2 Bacteria
17.3.3 Nematophagous Mites
17.3.4 Predatory Nematodes
17.3.5 Agronomic Methods
17.3.6 Physical Methods
17.3.7 Bio-Management of Dagger Nematodes
17.3.8 Bio-Management of Stubby-Root Nematodes
17.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
18: Burrowing Nematode in Spice and Fruit Crops and Their Management by Novel Biocontrol Strategies
18.1 Introduction
18.2 The Burrowing Nematode
18.2.1 Biology and Parasitism
18.2.2 Symptom, Damage, and Loss
18.3 Biological Control of the Burrowing Nematode
18.3.1 Definition of Biological Control
18.3.2 Biological Control Agents, Their Antagonistic Bioactivity, and Effectivity
18.3.2.1 Bacteria as Biological Control Agent
Pseudomonas fluorescens
Bacillus firmus
Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki
Serratia marcescens
Corynebacterium paurometabolum
Pasteuria penetrans
18.3.2.2 Fungi as Biological Control Agent
The Mycorrhizal Fungus
Glomus spp.
Trichoderma spp.
Rhizophagus irregularis MUCL 41833 AMF
Nonpathogenic Fusarium oxysporum (F. oxysporum NP)
Paecilomyces lilacinus
18.3.2.3 Insect as Biocontrol Agent
Blattisocius dolichus (Acari: Blattisociidae)
18.4 Formulation and Commercial Product of the Biopesticide for the Nematode
18.4.1 Formulation
18.4.2 Commercial Product of the Biopesticide for the Nematode
18.5 The Strategic Application of the Biocontrol Agent for Their Effective Bioprotection Activity
18.5.1 Organic Matter Incorporation Along with Biocontrol Agent Application
18.5.2 Healthy In Vitro Plants Early or Preventive Inoculation During the Hardening Phase
18.5.3 Sequential Inoculation and Re-Introduction of Beneficial Microorganisms
18.5.4 Optimal Concentration/Dose of the Biological Agent Formula
18.5.5 Consortia Application of Compatible Beneficial Microorganisms with Different Mechanisms of Action that Target Various P...
18.5.6 As Component of Integrated Pest Management
18.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
19: Reniform Nematode in Agricultural Crops and Their Management by Novel Biocontrol Technologies
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Major Reniform Nematodes Species Worldwide
19.3 Novel Biological Management Practices for the Management of Reniform Nematode
19.3.1 Cotton
19.3.2 Vegetable Crops
19.3.3 Fruit Crops
19.3.3.1 Grapes
19.3.3.2 Banana
19.3.3.3 Papaya
19.3.3.4 Pineapple
19.3.4 Oilseed Crops
19.3.4.1 Soybean
19.3.4.2 Castor
19.3.5 Pulses Crops
19.3.5.1 Cowpea
19.4 Genetic Engineering Technologies for the Management of Plant-Parasitic Nematodes
19.4.1 Molecular Approach
19.4.2 Resistance Mechanism
19.4.3 Reniform Nematode Resistance in Cotton
19.4.4 RNA Interference (RNAi)
19.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
20: Citrus Nematode in Fruit Crops and Their Management by Biological and Biotechnological Interventions
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Biological Control of T. semipenetrans in Citrus
20.2.1 Fungi
20.2.1.1 Trichoderma spp.
20.2.1.2 Purpureocillium lilacinum (=Paecilomyces lilacinus)
20.2.1.3 Pochonia chlamydosporia
20.2.1.4 Mycorrhizae (Glomus spp.)
20.2.1.5 Nematophagous Fungi
20.2.2 Bacteria
20.2.2.1 Bacillus spp.
20.2.2.2 Pseudomonas fluorescens
20.2.2.3 Streptomyces avermitilis
20.2.2.4 Pasteuria spp.
20.2.3 Mites
20.3 Biotechnological Interventions in Citrus Nematode Management
20.4 Conclusionand Future Perspectives
References
21: Spiral and Other Minor Ectoparasitic Nematodes in Agricultural Crops and Their Biomanagement
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Ectoparasitic Nematodes
21.3 Damages and Threats They Pose
21.4 General Biocontrol Strategies for Nematode Parasites of Crops
21.5 Management of Nematode Parasites of Legumes/Pulses
21.5.1 Soybean (Glycine max L.)
21.5.1.1 Control
21.5.2 Chickpea (Cicer arietinum)
21.5.2.1 Control
21.5.3 Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan)
21.5.3.1 Control
21.5.4 Common Bean/Haricot Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)
21.5.4.1 Control
21.6 Management of Nematode Parasites of Cereals
21.6.1 Effects of Nematode Parasites on Cereals
21.6.1.1 Rice (Oryza spp.)
21.6.1.2 Wheat (Triticum spp.)
21.6.1.3 Maize (Zea mays L.)
21.6.2 General Management Practice of PPNs in Cereal Fields
21.6.2.1 Cultural Practice
21.6.2.2 Biological Control
21.6.2.3 Host Plant Resistance Method
21.7 Management of Nematode Parasites of Tubers
21.7.1 General Methods for Controlling PPNs in Potato Fields
21.8 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
22: Pine Wood Nematode in Coniferous Forests and Their Management by Novel Biological and Biotechnological Interventions
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Distribution of Pine Wood Nematode
22.3 Vector Role
22.4 Primary Transmission
22.5 Secondary Transmission
22.6 Symptoms and Damage
22.6.1 Symptoms
22.6.2 External Symptoms
22.6.2.1 Appearance of the Symptoms
22.6.2.2 Withering and Death of the Tree
22.7 Internal Pathological Reactions
22.8 Damage
22.9 Life Cycle
22.9.1 Developmental Stages
22.10 Effect of Temperature on the Distribution and Development
22.11 Infection Cycle
22.12 Management
22.12.1 Quarantine and Monitoring
22.13 Removal of Infected Wood
22.14 Vector Insect Control
22.15 Chemical Control
22.16 Trapping
22.17 Biological Control
22.18 Control Protocol Targeting the Pine Wilt Nematode
22.19 Silvicultural Measure
22.20 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
23: Major Nematode Problems in Direct Seeded Rice and Their Management
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Root-Knot Nematode
23.3 Distribution and Host Range
23.4 Symptoms of Infestation
23.5 Life Cycle
23.6 Yield Losses
23.7 Management Strategies
23.7.1 Cultural Method of Management
23.7.2 Host Resistance
23.7.3 Biological Method of Management
23.8 Integrated Method of Management
23.9 Rice Stem Nematode
23.10 Distribution and Host Range
23.11 Symptoms of Infestation
23.12 Life Cycle
23.13 Yield Losses
23.14 Management Strategies
23.14.1 Cultural Method of Management
23.14.2 Host Resistance
23.14.3 Biological and Integrated Method of Management
23.15 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
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