Nanocellulose: From Nature to High Performance Tailored Materials

✍ Scribed by Alain Dufresne

• Publisher: De Gruyter
• Year: 2012
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 476
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Green Sciences

This specialist monograph provides an overview of the recent research on the fundamental and applied properties of nanoparticles extracted from cellulose, the most abundant polymer on the planet and an essential renewable resource. Given the rapid advancements in the field and the high level of interest within the scientific and industrial communities, this timely book will be required reading for all those working with nanocellulose in the life sciences and bio-based applications, biological, chemical and agricultural engineering, organic chemistry and materials science. The author pioneered the use of cellulose nanoparticles (cellulose nanocrystals or whiskers and cellulose microfibrils) in nanocomposite applications.The book combines a general introduction to cellulose and basic techniques with more advanced chapters on specific properties and applications of nanocellulose.

• Overview of essential techniques for the preparation of nanocellulose and its chemical modification
• Rheological behavior of nanocellulose suspensions and self-assembly
• Processing methods for nanocellulose-based nanocomposites
• Description of the thermal, mechanical, swelling and barrier properties of nanocellulose-based nanocomposites
• Full color illustrations
  

✦ Table of Contents

Preface
1 Cellulose and potential reinforcement
1.1 Polysaccharides
1.2 Chemical structure of the cellulose macromolecul
1.3 Biosynthesis of cellulose
1.4 Polymorphism of cellulose
1.4.1 Cellulose I
1.4.2 Cellulose II
1.4.3 Cellulose III
1.4.4 Cellulose IV
1.5 Cellulose microfibrils
1.6 Hierarchical structure of plants and natural fibers
1.7 Potential reinforcement of cellulose
1.7.1 Mechanical properties of natural fibers
1.7.2 Mechanical properties of cellulose microfibrils
1.7.3 Mechanical properties of cellulose crystal
1.8 Cellulose-based materials
1.8.1 Thermoplastically processable cellulose derivatives
1.8.2 Cellulose fiber reinforced composites
1.9 Conclusions
1.10 References
2 Preparation of microfibrillated cellulose
2.1 Fiber fibrillation process
2.1.1 Purification of cellulose
2.1.2 High-pressure homogenization
2.1.3 Grinding
2.1.4 Cryocrushing
2.1.5 High-intensity ultrasonication
2.1.6 Electrospinning
2.2 Pretreatments
2.2.1 Enzymatic pretreatment
2.2.2 Carboxymethylation
2.2.3 TEMPO-mediated oxidation pretreatment
2.3 Morphology
2.4 Degree of fibrillation
2.4.1 Turbidity of the suspension
2.4.2 Viscosity of the suspension
2.4.3 Porosity and density
2.4.4 Mechanical properties
2.4.5 Water retention
2.4.6 Degree of polymerization
2.4.7 Specific surface area
2.4.8 Crystallinity
2.5 Mechanical properties of MFC films
2.6 Optical properties of MFC films
2.7 Functionalization of MFC films
2.8 Conclusions
2.9 References
3 Preparation of cellulose nanocrystals
3.1 Pioneering works on the acid hydrolysis of cellulose
3.2 Pretreatment of natural fibers
3.3 Acid hydrolysis treatment
3.3.1 Sources of cellulose
3.3.2 Nature of the acid
3.3.3 Effect and optimization of extraction conditions
3.4 Other processes
3.4.1 Enzymatic hydrolysis treatment
3.4.2 TEMPO oxidation
3.4.3 Hydrolysis with gaseous acid
3.4.4 Ionic liquid
3.5 Post-treatment of hydrolyzed cellulose
3.5.1 Purification of the suspension
3.5.2 Fractionation
3.5.3 Yield
3.6 Morphology
3.7 Degree of hydrolysis
3.7.1 Birefringence of the suspension
3.7.2 Viscosity of the suspension
3.7.3 Porosity and density
3.7.4 Mechanical properties
3.7.5 Degree of polymerization
3.7.6 Specific surface area
3.7.7 Level of sulfation
3.7.8 Crystallinity
3.8 Mechanical properties of nanocrystal films
3.9 Conclusions
3.10 References
4 Bacterial cellulose
4.1 Production of cellulose by bacteria
4.2 Influence of carbon source
4.3 Culture conditions
4.4 In situ modification of bacterial cellulose
4.5 Bacterial cellulose hydrogels
4.6 Bacterial cellulose films
4.7 Applications of bacterial cellulose
4.8 Conclusions
4.9 References
5 Chemical modification of nanocellulose
5.1 Reactivity of cellulose
5.2 Surface chemistry of cellulose nanoparticles
5.3 Non-covalent surface chemical modification of cellulose nanoparticles
5.3.1 Adsorption of surfactant
5.3.2 Adsorption of macromolecules
5.4 Esterification, acetylation and acylation
5.5 Cationization
5.6 Silylation
5.7 Carbamination
5.8 TEMPO-mediated oxidation
5.9 Polymer grafting
5.9.1 Polymer grafting using the “grafting onto” approach
5.9.2 Polymer grafting using the “grafting from” approach
5.10 Click chemistry
5.11 Fluorescently labeled nanocellulose
5.12 Evidence of surface chemical modification
5.12.1 X-ray diffraction analysis
5.12.2 Dispersion in organic solvent
5.12.3 Contact angle measurements
5.12.4 Gravimetry
5.12.5 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy
5.12.6 Elemental analysis
5.12.7 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
5.12.8 Time of flight mass spectrometry (TOF-MS)
5.12.9 Solid-state NMR spectroscopy
5.12.10 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
5.12.11 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
5.13 Conclusions
5.14 References
6 Rheological behavior of nanocellulose suspensions and self-assembly
6.1 Rheological behavior of microfibrillated cellulose suspensions
6.2 Stability of colloidal cellulose nanocrystal suspensions
6.3 Birefringence properties of cellulose nanocrystal suspensions
6.4 Liquid crystalline behavior
6.4.1 Liquid crystalline state
6.4.2 Liquid crystalline behavior of cellulose derivatives
6.4.3 Liquid crystalline behavior of cellulose nanocrystal suspensions
6.5 Onsager theory for neutral rod-like particles
6.6 Theoretical treatment for charged rod-like particles
6.7 Chiral nematic behavior of cellulose nanocrystal suspensions
6.7.1 Isotropic-chiral nematic phase separation of cellulose nanocrystal suspensions
6.7.2 Effect of the polyelectrolyte nature
6.7.3 Effect of the presence of macromolecules
6.8 Liquid crystalline phases of spherical cellulose nanocrystal suspensions
6.9 Rheological behavior of cellulose nanocrystal suspensions
6.10 Light scattering studies
6.11 Preserving the chiral nematic order in solid films
6.12 Conclusions
6.13 References
7 Processing of nanocellulose-based materials
7.1 Polymer latexes
7.2 Hydrosoluble or hydrodispersible polymers
7.3 Non-aqueous systems
7.3.1 Non-aqueous polar medium
7.3.2 Solvent mixture and solvent exchange
7.3.3 In situ polymerization
7.3.4 Surfactant
7.3.5 Surface chemical modification
7.4 Foams and aerogels
7.5 Melt compounding
7.5.1 Drying of the nanoparticles
7.5.2 Melt compounding with a polar matrix
7.5.3 Melt compounding using solvent exchange
7.5.4 Melt compounding with processing aids
7.5.5 Melt compounding with chemically grafted nanoparticles
7.5.6 Melt compounding using physical process
7.6 Filtration and impregnation
7.7 Spinning and electrospinning
7.8 Multilayer films
7.9 Conclusions
7.10 References
8 Thermal properties
8.1 Thermal expansion of cellulose
8.1.1 Thermal expansion coefficient of cellulose crystal
8.1.2 Thermal expansion coefficient of nanocellulose films
8.1.3 Thermal expansion coefficient of nanocellulose-based composites
8.2 Thermal conductivity of nanocellulose-based nanocomposites
8.3 Thermal transitions of cellulose nanoparticles
8.4 Thermal stability of cellulose nanoparticles
8.4.1 Thermal degradation of cellulose
8.4.2 Thermal stability of microfibrillated cellulose
8.4.3 Thermal stability of cellulose nanocrystals
8.4.4 Thermal stability of bacterial cellulose and electrospun fibers
8.5 Glass transition of nanocellulose-based nanocomposites
8.6 Melting/crystallization of nanocellulose-based nanocomposites
8.6.1 Melting temperature
8.6.2 Crystallization temperature
8.6.3 Degree of crystallinity
8.6.4 Rate of crystallization
8.7 Thermal stability of nanocellulose-based nanocomposites
8.8 Conclusions
8.9 References
9 Mechanical properties of nanocellulose-based nanocomposites
9.1 Pioneering works
9.2 Modeling of the mechanical behavior
9.2.1 Mean field approach
9.2.2 Percolation approach
9.3 Influence of the morphology of the nanoparticles
9.4 Influence of the processing method
9.5 Filler/matrix interfacial interactions
9.5.1 Polarity of the matrix
9.5.2 Chemical modification of the nanoparticles
9.5.3 Local alteration of the matrix in the presence of the nanoparticles
9.6 Synergistic reinforcement
9.7 Specific mechanical characterization
9.7.1 Compression test
9.7.2 Successive tensile test
9.7.3 Bulge test 359
9.7.4 Raman spectroscopy
9.7.5 Atomic force microscopy
9.8 Conclusions
9.9 References
10 Swelling and barrier properties
10.1 Swelling and sorption properties
10.2 Barrier properties
10.2.1 Water vapor transfer rate and water vapor permeability
10.2.2 Gas permeability
10.3 Water sorption and swelling properties of microfibrillated cellulose films
10.3.1 Influence of pretreatment
10.3.2 Influence of post-treatment
10.4 Water vapor transfer rate and water vapor permeability of microfibrillated cellulose films
10.4.1 Influence of pretreatment
10.4.2 Influence of post-treatment
10.5 Gas permeability of microfibrillated cellulose films
10.5.1 Effect of relative humidity
10.5.2 Improvement of gas barrier properties
10.5.3 Polymer coating
10.5.4 Paper coating
10.6 Cellulose nanocrystal films
10.7 Microfibrillated cellulose-based films
10.7.1 Swelling and sorption properties
10.7.2 Water vapor transfer rate and water vapor permeability
10.7.3 Oxygen permeability
10.8 Cellulose nanocrystal-based films
10.8.1 Swelling and sorption properties
10.8.2 Water vapor transfer rate and water vapor permeability
10.8.3 Gas permeability
10.8.4 Other substances permeability
10.9 Conclusions
10.10 References
11 Other polysaccharide nanocrystals
11.1 Starch
11.1.1 Composition
11.1.2 Multi-scale structure of the granule
11.1.3 Polymorphism
11.2 Acid hydrolysis of starch
11.3 Starch nanocrystals
11.3.1 Aqueous suspensions
11.3.2 Morphology
11.3.3 Thermal properties
11.3.4 Surface chemical modification
11.4 Starch nanocrystal reinforced polymer nanocomposites
11.4.1 Mechanical properties
11.4.2 Swelling properties
11.4.3 Barrier properties
11.5 Chitin
11.5.1 Chemical structure
11.5.2 Polymorphism and structure
11.6 Chitin nanocrystals
11.6.1 Acid hydrolysis
11.6.2 Other treatments
11.6.3 Morphology
11.6.4 Surface chemical modification
11.7 Chitin nanocrystal reinforced polymer nanocomposites
11.7.1 Mechanical properties
11.7.2 Swelling resistance
11.8 Conclusions
11.9 References
12 Conclusions, applications and likely future trends
12.1 References
13 Index