Multifunctional Hydrogels: From Basic Concepts to Advanced Applications

✍ Scribed by García-Torres J., Alemán C., Gupta R.K. (ed.)

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2024
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 411
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Hydrogels are important polymer-based materials with innate fascinating properties and applications: they are three-dimensional, hydrophilic, polymeric networks that can absorb large amounts of water or aqueous fluids and are biocompatible, mechanically flexible, and soft. The incorporation of functionalities to develop smart and bioactive platforms has led to a myriad of applications. This book offers a comprehensive overview of multifunctional hydrogels, covering fundamentals, properties, and advanced applications in a progressive way. While each chapter can be read stand-alone, together they clearly describe the fundamental concepts of design, synthesis, and fabrication, as well as properties and performances of smart multifunctional hydrogels and their advanced applications in the biomedical, environmental, and robotics fields.
This book:
• Introduces readers to different hydrogel materials and the polymer types used to fabricate them.
• Discusses conducting polymer hydrogels, nanocomposite hydrogels, and self-healing hydrogels.
• Covers synthesis methodologies and fabrication techniques commonly used to confer certain structures and/or architectures.
• Shows how hydrogels can be modified to incorporate new functionalities able to respond to physical and/or chemical changes.
• Examines applications including bioelectronics, sensors and biosensors, tissue engineering, drug delivery, antipathogen applications, cancer theranostics, environmental applications, and soft robotics, with chapters showcasing the main advances achieved up to date in every field.
Multifunctional Hydrogels: From Basic Concepts to Advanced Applications serves as a valuable resource for academic and industry researchers from interdisciplinary fields including materials science, chemistry, chemical engineering, bioengineering, physics, and pharmaceutical engineering.

✦ Table of Contents

Cover
Half Title
Multifunctional Hydrogels: From Basic Concepts to Advanced Applications
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Editor Biographies
Contributors
1. Multifunctional Hydrogels: An Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Chemistry and Properties of Hydrogels
1.3 Applications of Hydrogels
1.3.1 Hydrogels for Energy Production
1.3.2 Hydrogels for Energy Storage
1.3.3 Hydrogels for Sensors
1.3.4 Hydrogels for Biomedicals
1.4 Conclusion
References
2. Hydrogels Based on Natural and/or Synthetic Polymers
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Natural Hydrogels
2.2.1 Cellulose and Starch
2.2.2 Alginates
2.2.3 Non-Vegetable Sources
2.2.3.1 Chitin and Chitosan
2.2.3.2 Collagen and Gelatin
2.2.3.3 Silk Fibroin
2.2.3.4 Fibrin
2.2.3.5 Hyaluronic Acid
2.3 Synthetic Hydrogels
2.3.1 Polyesters and Polyamides
2.3.2 Polyacrylates and Polymethacrylates
2.3.3 Polymer Amines
2.3.4 Polyvinyl Alcohol Hydrogels
2.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
3. Nanocomposite Hydrogels
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Synthesis of Nanocomposite Hydrogels
3.2.1 Carbon Nanostructure-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels
3.2.2 Polymeric Nanoparticle-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels
3.2.3 Metal Nanoparticle-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels
3.2.4 Inorganic Nanoparticle-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels
3.3 Natural Polymer-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels
3.3.1 Polysaccharide-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels
3.3.2 DNA-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels
3.3.3 Protein Nanocomposite Hydrogels
3.4 Properties of Nanocomposite Hydrogels
3.4.1 Stimuli Response
3.4.2 Mechanical Properties
3.4.3 Electrical Properties
3.4.4 Magnetic Properties
3.4.5 Thermal Properties
3.4.6 Swelling Properties
3.5 Conclusion and Future Trends
References
4. Synthesis of Hydrogels: Physical and Chemical Cross-Linking
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Cross-Linking
4.3 Chemical Cross-Linking
4.3.1 Chain Growth Polymerization or Addition Polymerization
4.3.1.1 Condensation Polymerization or Step-Growth Polymerization
4.3.2 Radiation Cross-Linking
4.3.2.1 Photo-Cross-Linking Radiation
4.3.3 Graft Copolymerization
4.3.4 Free-Radical Polymerization
4.3.4.1 Photo-Cross-Linking Radiation
4.3.4.2 Graft Copolymerization
4.3.5 Free-Radical Polymerization
4.3.6 Interpenetrating Networks
4.4 Physical Cross-Linking
4.4.1 Crystallization (Freeze/Thaw Cycles)
4.4.2 Hydrophobic Interactions
4.4.3 Amphiphilic Copolymers
4.4.4 Charge Interactions
4.4.5 Interactions by Hydrogen Bonds
4.4.6 Stereocomplex Formation
4.4.7 Protein Interactions
4.5 Conclusion
References
5. Fabrication Techniques of Hydrogels
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Fabrication Techniques of Hydrogels
5.3 Electrospinning
5.3.1 Solution Electrospinning
5.3.2 Melt Electrospinning
5.3.3 Electrospinning Parameters
5.4 Gas Foaming
5.5 Sol-Gel Method
5.6 Three-Dimensional Printing
5.6.1 Laser Printing
5.6.2 Stereolithography
5.6.3 Two-Photon Polymerization
5.6.4 Laser-Induce Forward Transfer
5.6.5 Inkjet Printing
5.6.6 Extrusion Printing
5.7 Melt Molding
5.7.1 Freeze-Drying
5.8 Other Methodologies
5.8.1 Grafting
5.8.1.1 Plasma Treatment
5.8.2 High-Energy Electron Beam Irradiation
5.8.3 Hydrogel Nanocomposites Formation
5.8.3.1 Blending Method
5.8.3.2 In Situ Method
5.9 Conclusion
References
6. Hydrogel-Based Sensors with Advanced Properties
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Hydrogels with Self-Healing Properties
6.3 Hydrogels with Shape Memory Properties
6.4 Hydrogels with Hydrophobic and Superhydrophobic Properties
6.5 Hydrogels with Conductive Properties
6.6 Hydrogels with Magnetic Properties
6.7 Future Trends on Hydrogels with Advanced Properties
6.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
7. Chemical-Responsive Reversible Hydrogels
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Chemically Responsive Hydrogels
7.2.1 pH-Responsive Hydrogels
7.2.2 Ion-Responsive Hydrogels
7.2.3 Chemical- and Biochemical-Responsive Hydrogels
7.2.4 Molecular Recognition
7.3 Functionality and Applications
7.4 Conclusion and Outlook
References
8. Hydrogels with Electrical Properties
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Ion-Conducting Hydrogels
8.3 Electronically Conducting Hydrogels
8.4 Semi-Interpenetrated Conducting Hydrogels
8.5 Metallic Nanomaterials
8.6 Carbon Nanomaterials
8.7 Other Conducting Nanomaterials: Mxenes and Conducting Polymers
8.8 Conclusions
References
9. Hydrogels with Magnetic Properties
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Preparation of Magnetic Hydrogels
9.2.1 In situ Synthesis
9.2.2 Ex situ Synthesis
9.3 The Future of Magnetic Nanomaterials
9.4 Recent Advances of Magnetic Hydrogels
9.4.1 Cancer Theranostics
9.4.2 Diabetes
9.4.3 Wearable Devices
9.4.4 Soft Robotics
9.4.5 Gas Detection System
9.5 Challenges and Future Prospects
9.6 Concluding Remarks
References
10. Hydrogels with Thermal Responsiveness
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Thermoresponsive Behavior in Polymers
10.2.1 Hydrogels with VPTT Based on LCST
10.2.2 Hydrogels with VPTT Based on UCST
10.2.3 Hydrogels with VPTT Based on Both LCST and UCST Behavior
10.3 Dual Thermo- and pH-Responsive Hydrogels
10.4 Thermosensitive Nanocomposite Hydrogels
10.4.1 Natural Thermosensitive Polymeric Matrixes for Nanocomposite Hydrogels
10.4.2 Synthetic Thermosensitive Polymeric Matrixes for Nanocomposite Hydrogels
10.5 Thermo- and Dual-Responsive Hydrogels with Nanomaterials as Fillers
10.5.1 Thermo- and pH-Responsive Hydrogels
10.5.2 Thermo- and Light-responsive Hydrogels
10.5.3 Thermo- and Electrical Responsive Hydrogels
10.5.4 Thermo- and Magnetic-Responsive Hydrogels
10.6 Dual-Responsive Temperature-Sensitive Hydrogels for Specific Applications
10.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
References
11. Mechanical Properties of Multifunctional Hydrogels
11.1 Introduction to Mechanical Properties of Multifunctional Hydrogels
11.2 Mechanical Modeling of Hydrogels
11.2.1 Rubber-like Elasticity
11.2.2 Viscoelasticity
11.2.3 Equilibrium Swelling Theory
11.3 Experimental Methods for Mechanical Characteristics
11.3.1 Stress-Strain Tests
11.3.2 Creep and Stress Relaxation
11.3.3 Cyclic deformation
11.3.4 Fracture Processes
11.3.5 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis
11.3.5.1 Amplitude Sweep
11.3.5.2 Frequency Sweep
11.3.5.3 Temperature Sweep
11.3.5.4 Time Sweep
11.4 Tuning and Control of the Mechanical Properties of Multifunctional Hydrogels
11.4.1 Multifunctional Hydrogel Network Types
11.4.2 The Effect of Gel Network Compositions and Swelling Behavior on Mechanical Properties
11.4.2.1 The Effect of Swelling on the Mechanical Behavior of Hydrogels
11.4.2.2 The Effect of Monomer Concentration and Composition on the Mechanical Behavior of Hydrogels
11.4.2.3 The Effect of Cross-linker Density and Type on the Mechanical Behavior of Hydrogels
11.4.2.4 The Effect of Cross-linking Temperature on the Mechanical Behavior of Hydrogels
11.4.2.5 The Effect of Polymer Type and Content on the Mechanical Behavior of Hydrogels
11.4.3 Design of Composite Hydrogels for Enhancing Mechanical Properties
11.4.4 Mechanoresponsive Hydrogels with Different Biomedical Applications
11.4.4.1 Strain-Stiffening of Hydrogels
11.4.4.2 Shear-Thinning and Self-Healing of Hydrogels
11.4.4.3 Mechanochromic Hydrogels
11.5 Conclusion
References
12. Hydrogels for Bioelectronics
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Conductivity in Hydrogels
12.2.1 Ionic Conductivity: Polyelectrolytes and Salts
12.2.2 Electronic Conductivity: Metal/Carbon Nanostructures
12.2.3 Electronic Conductivity: Conducting Polymers
12.2.4 Hybrid Conductivity
12.3 Hydrogel Materials for Bioelectronic Applications
12.3.1 Natural Hydrogels
12.3.1.1 Gelatin
12.3.1.2 Chitosan
12.3.1.3 Cellulose
12.3.1.4 Alginate
12.3.2 Synthetic Hydrogels
12.3.2.1 Polyacrylamide (PAAm)
12.3.2.2 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)
12.3.2.3 Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)
12.4 Applications of Hydrogels in Bioelectronics: Sensing, Diagnostic, and Therapeutics
12.4.1 On-Skin Bioelectronics
12.4.1.1 Epidermal Bioelectronics
12.4.1.2 Wound Patch Devices
12.4.1.3 Biochemical Sensor
12.4.2 Implantable Devices and Tissue Engineering
12.4.2.1 Neurological Signal Monitoring
12.4.2.2 Tissue Engineering
12.5 Conclusions
References
13. Hydrogels for Physical and (Bio)Chemical Sensors
13.1 An Introduction to Designing Sensors and Biosensors
13.1.1 Sensors: Definition and Classification
13.1.2 Biosensors
13.1.3 Hydrogel-Based Sensors
13.1.4 Polymer Hydrogel-Based (Bio)Sensors
13.1.5 Design and Principal
13.2 Immobilization Techniques for Functionalization of Hydrogels
13.2.1 Physical or Reversible Immobilization
13.2.2 Chemical or Irreversible Immobilization
13.3 Transducing Strategies
13.3.1 Electrochemical Sensors
13.3.2 Optical
13.3.3 Microelectromechanical Systems
13.3.4 Stimuli-Responsive Sensors
13.4 Conclusion and Perspectives
References
14. Hydrogels for Biomedical Applications
14.1 Hydrogels for Biomedical and Technological Applications
14.2 Biocompatibility of Hydrogels in Cellular Systems
14.2.1 Purification and Sterilization of Hydrogels
14.2.2 Seeding of Cell Cultures on Hydrogels Surfaces
14.2.3 Isolating Cells from Hydrogels
14.2.4 Cell and Nuclear Morphology Analysis after Contacting Hydrogels
14.2.5 Cell Viability/Cytotoxicity Assays
14.2.6 Intra- and Extracellular Parameters Determination
14.3 Cell/Hydrogel Biointerface
14.3.1 Biointerfacial Wettability and Chemical Composition of the Scaffold
14.4 In Vivo Assessment of Hydrogels' Biocompatibility
14.5 Applications
14.5.1 Nanomedicine Applications
14.5.2 Mammalian Sperm Selection by Attachment to Hydrogel Surfaces
14.6 Conclusions
Notes
15. Hydrogels for Drug Delivery
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Classification of Hydrogels
15.2.1 Macroscopic Hydrogels
15.2.2 In Situ Injectable Hydrogels
15.2.3 Shear Thinning Hydrogels
15.2.4 Microgels and Nanogels
15.3 Mechanism of Gelation
15.3.1 Chemical Hydrogels
15.3.1.1 Biorthogonal Chemical Reactions
15.3.1.2 Non-Biorthogonal Reaction
15.3.2 Physical Hydrogels
15.3.2.1 Physical Hydrogels Based on Hydrogen Bonding
15.3.2.2 Physical Hydrogels Based on Hydrophobic Interaction
15.3.2.3 Physical Hydrogels based on Ionic Bonds
15.4 Pharmaceutical Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogels
15.4.1 Injectable pH-Responsive Hydrogels
15.4.2 Temperature-Responsive Hydrogels
15.4.3 Photon-Responsive Hydrogels
15.4.4 Enzyme-Responsive Hydrogels
15.4.5 Electro-Responsive Hydrogels
15.5 Regulation on Hydrogels
15.5.1 Drug Products
15.5.2 Barriers on Clinical Translation
15.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
16. Hydrogels for Anti-Pathogen Applications
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Hydrogels for Anti-Bacterial Therapy
16.3 Hydrogels for Anti-Fungal Therapy
16.4 Hydrogels for Anti-Viral Therapy
16.4.1 Therapy against Viral Infection
16.4.2 Perspective for Hydrogels against COVID-19 and Other Coronaviruses
16.5 Hydrogels for Anti-Parasitic Therapy
16.6 Conclusions and Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
17. Hydrogels for Environmental Applications
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Preparative Methods of Hydrogels to be used for Environmental Applications
17.3 Properties of Hydrogels to be used for Environmental Applications
17.4 Various Environmental Applications
17.4.1 Agricultural Applications
17.4.1.1 Soil Conditioner
17.4.1.2 Slow-Release Fertilizer
17.4.1.3 Soilless Cultivation
17.4.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery
17.4.3 Food Packaging
17.4.4 Health and Safety
17.4.5 Sensor
17.4.6 Water Remediation
17.4.6.1 Metal Ion Removal
17.4.6.2 Dye Removal
17.4.6.3 Pharmaceutical Removal
17.4.6.4 Pesticide Removal
17.4.7 Oil-Water Separation
17.5 Conclusion
References
18. Hydrogels for Wastewater Cleaning and Water Recovery
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Hydrogel Materials Applied for Wastewater Treatment and Water Purification
18.3 Hydrogels in Oil/Water Separation
18.4 Hydrogels in Wastewater Treatments
18.4.1 Hydrogels in the Adsorptive Removal of Pollutants
18.4.2 Hydrogels for Advanced Oxidation Process (AOPs) in Wastewater Treatments
18.4.3 Hydrogels in Biological Processes of Wastewater Treatments
18.5 Hydrogels in Water Purification
18.5.1 Solar Water Purification
18.5.2 Reverse Osmosis
18.5.3 Forward Osmosis
18.5.4 Electrodialysis
18.5.5 Capacitive Deionization
18.6 Future of Hydrogels in Freshwater Production and Wastewater Purification
Acknowledgments
References
19. Hydrogels for Soft Robotics
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Fundamentals of Hydrogels
19.3 Hydrogel-Based Components of Soft Robotics
19.3.1 Hydrogel-Based Actuators
19.4 Morphing of Hydrogel-Based Structure for Soft Robotics
19.4.1 Folding and Bending
19.4.2 Micro and Meso Patterning
19.4.3 Anisotropy using Additives and Alignment
19.4.4 Gradients
19.5 Conclusion
References
Index