Modern Antennas

✍ Scribed by S. Drabowitch, A. Papiernik, Hugh Griffiths, J. Encinas, B.L. Smith

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2005
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 703
• Edition: 2nd ed
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Modern Antennas, 2nd edition В provides a complete and rigorous treatment of the theory and practice of modern antenna design and use. Written by a team of experienced engineers, the text is presented in a simple and understandable manner which guides the reader progressively through the stages of the design process. The book is aimed at practising engineers and graduate-level students, and includes numerous examples of practical designs applied to real engineering situations.

The second edition contains significant new material on antennas for mobile communications, and on signal processing antennas for applications in communications and radar.

Written to serve the needs both of practising engineers and advanced and postgraduate students, Modern Antennas, 2nd edition is an essential handbook for any engineer involved in the field.

✦ Table of Contents

Cover......Page 1
Modern Antennas, 2nd Edition (Springer, 2005)......Page 3
ISBN 978-1-4020-3216-5......Page 4
Contents......Page 5
List of contributors......Page 16
Foreword......Page 17
Acknowledgements......Page 20
Introduction......Page 21
Further Reading......Page 26
Electromagnetic fields and sources......Page 27
Complex notation......Page 28
Continuity conditions......Page 29
Linear dielectric media......Page 30
Propagation equations......Page 31
Perfect conductor......Page 32
Conducting and linear dielectric media......Page 33
1.1.4 Reciprocity theorem......Page 34
1.2.1 Power volume densities......Page 35
1.2.2 Energy volume densities......Page 36
1.2.3 Poynting vector and power......Page 37
Definition of a plane wave......Page 38
Propagation constant, wavenumber, phase velocity, refractive index, attenuation......Page 39
Structure, wave impedance......Page 40
Polarization......Page 41
Power transported by a plane wave in a lossless medium......Page 42
1.3.2 Skin effect......Page 44
Further Reading......Page 46
1.2 Electromagnetic potentials......Page 47
1.4 Polarization......Page 48
1.6 Skin effect......Page 49
Radiation......Page 51
2-D Fourier transform......Page 52
Properties......Page 53
2.1.2 Electromagnetic field in a semi-infinite space with no sources......Page 54
Component expressions......Page 55
Field component relations in the spectral domain......Page 57
The electric (or magnetic) field can be expressed from the tangential electric (or magnetic) field in the vicinity of the xy plane.......Page 58
2.1.3 The far field......Page 59
Field calculation by the stationary phase method......Page 60
Application to the calculation of the far field......Page 61
Application to the radiation from an elementary dipole (Hertzian dipole)......Page 63
Green’s identity......Page 64
Even Green’s function in the half-space z > 0......Page 65
By means of Green’s function in an unbounded space......Page 66
By means of the odd Green’s function G1 in a half-space......Page 67
2.2.3 Plane wave spectrum and Kirchhoff’s formulation......Page 68
Further Reading......Page 69
2.2 2D Fourier transform of exp(−jkr)/r......Page 70
Antennas in transmission......Page 72
3.1.1 Vector characteristic of the radiation from the antenna......Page 73
3.1.3 Application: radiation produced by an arbitrary current......Page 74
Application: calculation of the field radiated by a closed circuit of small dimensions; magnetic dipole......Page 75
3.1.4 Radiated power......Page 77
Electric dipole......Page 78
Magnetic dipole......Page 80
General formula......Page 81
Radiated power......Page 83
Uniformly illuminated rectangular aperture......Page 84
3.3.1 Radiated power......Page 85
3.3.2 Directivity......Page 86
3.3.3 Gain......Page 87
Definition......Page 89
3.3.5 Input impedance......Page 91
Further Reading......Page 92
3.4 Electric dipole and magnetic dipole......Page 93
3.6 Maximum directivity of an aperture antenna......Page 94
3.8 Circular aperture......Page 95
3.9 Uniformly illuminated circular aperture......Page 96
4.1.1 Reciprocity theorem applied to a source-free closed surface......Page 97
Field (E1,H1) when the antenna is transmitting......Page 98
Field (E2,H2) when the antenna is receiving......Page 100
4.1.2 Relation between the field on transmit and the field on receive......Page 101
4.2.1 Definition......Page 102
4.2.2 Relationship between gain and effective receiving area......Page 103
4.3.1 The Friis transmission formula......Page 104
4.3.2 Radar equation......Page 105
Antenna RCS......Page 107
4.4.1 Power radiated by a body at absolute temperature T......Page 108
4.4.2 Noise temperature of the antenna......Page 111
4.4.3 Noise temperature of the receiving system......Page 112
Further Reading......Page 113
4.4 Radio link......Page 114
5.1.1 Parabolic antennas......Page 116
Geometry of a parabola......Page 117
Field in the aperture......Page 118
5.1.2 Rectangular horns (see also §8.2)......Page 122
Pyramidal horn......Page 129
5.2.1 Electric dipoles......Page 131
Hertzian dipole (elementary electric dipole)......Page 132
Electric dipoles of arbitrary length......Page 133
5.2.2 Travelling wave rectilinear antennas......Page 137
Loops......Page 140
Helical antennas......Page 142
Further Reading......Page 144
5.2 Parabolic reflector of diameter D small compared with the wavelength λ, uniformly illuminated by a primary feed......Page 145
5.5 Power radiated by a loop carrying a constant current......Page 146
6.1 Introduction......Page 148
6.2 Different Type of Printed Radiating Elements......Page 149
6.3 Field Analysis Methods......Page 152
6.3.2 The cavity method......Page 153
Simplifying hypotheses......Page 154
Calculation of the radiated field......Page 155
Expression for the electromagnetic field......Page 156
Magnetic field and surface current on the patch......Page 157
Properties of the fundamental mode......Page 158
6.3.4 Application to a circular patch......Page 159
6.4.1 Input impedance......Page 161
6.4.2 Bandwidth......Page 162
6.4.3 Radiation pattern......Page 165
Linear polarization......Page 166
Circular polarization......Page 167
6.5 Low - Profile, Wideband or Multiband Antennas for Mobile Communications and Short - Range......Page 169
6.5.1 Miniaturization......Page 170
6.5.2 Enlargement of the bandwidth and realization of multiband antennas......Page 171
6.5.3 Example: multiband antenna for telecommunications5......Page 173
Further Reading......Page 177
6.1 Simplified model of a rectangular printed patch......Page 178
6.3 Dual-frequency rectangular microstrip antenna......Page 179
7.1 Introduction......Page 180
7.2.1 Structures......Page 182
7.2.2 External characteristics required in applications......Page 186
Surveillance antenna pattern......Page 187
Multibeam antenna for 3-D radar (§11.7).......Page 189
Low noise antennas for space communication links......Page 190
7.3.1 Wavefronts......Page 193
7.3.2 The Huygens−Fresnel principle of wave propagation......Page 194
7.3.3 Stationary phase principle......Page 195
Rays......Page 198
Flow of electromagnetic energy and geometrical optics......Page 199
Optical path......Page 200
Optical path law - applications......Page 201
7.3.5 Ray theory in quasi-homogeneous media......Page 202
(a) Wave surface and ray differential equations......Page 203
(b) Curvature of rays......Page 204
(c) Important particular case: radial variation of the index - Bouguer’s law......Page 205
(d) Case of a laminar medium:......Page 207
7.4.1 Antenna radiation and equivalent aperture method......Page 213
Electromagnetic horn (§5.1.2 and §8.2)......Page 214
Parabolic reflector......Page 215
Introduction......Page 217
Calculation of the total field at P from its transverse component......Page 221
7.4.4 Examples of radiating apertures......Page 222
Rectangular apertures......Page 223
Circular apertures......Page 225
Polarization of reference......Page 230
Unit vectors of Huygens coordinates......Page 233
Relations with spherical coordinates......Page 234
Polarization components of a field......Page 236
Far-field or Fraunhofer region......Page 237
Intermediate or Fresnel region......Page 238
General expression......Page 240
Gain in the normal direction......Page 241
Maximum gain is obtained when......Page 242
Application......Page 243
Appendix 7A: Deduction of the Huygens-Fresnel principle (§7.3.2) from the Kirchhoff integral......Page 244
Further Reading......Page 245
7.1 Factor of merit of a ground station antenna......Page 246
7.2 Effect of cosecant-squared pattern on maximum gain......Page 247
7.3 Wave propagation in a laminar medium......Page 248
7.4 Gain of an aperture with tapered illumination......Page 250
8.1.1 Introduction......Page 251
Radiation pattern......Page 252
Phase centre, astigmatism, caustic......Page 253
Caustic surface......Page 255
Polarization: vectorial expression of the radiated field......Page 256
General expressions for fields......Page 259
Properties of the radiation patterns......Page 262
Expressions from the fields over the aperture......Page 264
Gain factor of the focusing system......Page 266
8.2.1 General properties......Page 267
8.2.2 Small flare angle horns and open-ended guides......Page 268
8.2.3 Flared horns......Page 269
Generation of modes......Page 270
Examples......Page 271
8.3.1 Circular aperture radiating a pure polarization......Page 273
Hybrid mode generated by a conical spectrum of plane waves......Page 274
Search for a cylindrical guide possessing the required boundary conditions - propagation conditions......Page 276
Field line structure of modes HE1m......Page 277
Realization of the anisotropic surface admittance......Page 278
Radiation from a corrugated horn......Page 279
Further Reading......Page 284
8.1 Circular horn......Page 285
8.2 Astigmatic horn......Page 286
9.1 Introduction......Page 288
9.2 Symmetry Properties - Propagation of Polarization, Radiation Patterns......Page 289
9.3.1 Definition......Page 291
9.3.2 Pupil - aperture angle - focal length......Page 292
9.3.3 Equivalent aperture of the system......Page 293
9.4 Transfer Function......Page 294
9.5.2 Expression obtained from the primary gain g´ and the trans ferfunction......Page 296
9.5.3 Effect of various factors in the gain function......Page 297
9.5.4 Concept of optimal primary directivity......Page 299
9.6.2 Axisymmetric primary pattern with pure polarization......Page 301
9.6.3 Effect of blockage......Page 304
9.7.1 Introduction......Page 305
9.7.2 Main aberrations in the defocusing plane......Page 306
9.8.1 Effect of transfer function......Page 311
9.8.2 Diffraction in the vicinity of the focus F of an element dS´ of a spherical wave S´......Page 312
9.8.3 Analysis of a diffraction pattern - contribution of an elementary crown of the spherical wave - hybrid waves......Page 314
9.8.4 Axial field......Page 315
9.8.5 Transverse distribution of the diffracted field in the focal plane......Page 316
9.8.6 Axially-symmetric systems with a small aperture Thita......Page 317
9.8.7 Constant transfer function......Page 318
9.8.9 General case: system with a very large aperture......Page 321
9.9.1 Diffraction pattern produced around the focus by an incident non axial plane wave......Page 323
9.9.2 Radiation pattern of the system associated with a given primary aperture......Page 324
9.9.3 Examples of applications......Page 325
9.9.4 Axial gain of an axially-symmetric system - effect of the diameter of the primary aperture......Page 327
9.10 Radiation in the Fresnel Zone of A Gaussian Illumination - Application to the Transport of Energy by Radiation (Goubeau's Waves)......Page 329
Further Reading......Page 332
9.2 Characteristic radiation function of an annular feed with radial polarization......Page 333
10.1 Introduction......Page 338
10.2.1 Introduction1......Page 339
10.2.2 Geometry......Page 340
10.2.3 Equivalent primary feed......Page 342
10.2.4 Principal surface......Page 343
Subreflector......Page 344
Generalization......Page 346
Calculation assumptions......Page 347
Notations used......Page 348
Reflected field at M......Page 349
Calculation of integral 5......Page 350
Numerical results......Page 352
Blockage effect......Page 353
Suppression of blockage effect by rotation of the plane of polarization......Page 354
10.3.1 Introduction......Page 356
Angular and angle-error tracking......Page 358
Scattering pattern of a targe......Page 359
Polarization of the echo - the polarization matrix......Page 360
Target identification (see also §12.4)......Page 362
Principle of operation - receiver block diagram......Page 363
Examples of conical scanning antennas......Page 370
Principle of radar monopulse antennas......Page 372
Main characteristics of a classical monopulse antenna......Page 377
Angular accuracy of monopulse radar - Influence of antenna characteristics......Page 381
Various types of classical monopulse antennas......Page 383
Influence of cross polarization on the tracking accuracy......Page 385
Comparison of conical scanning and monopulse......Page 387
10.3.5 Beacon tracking......Page 388
Illumination......Page 389
Cross polarization11......Page 390
Definition of the reflector shape from that of the ‘main curve’......Page 393
Determination of the central curve Γ......Page 395
Diffraction pattern......Page 396
Numerical example......Page 398
Further Reading......Page 400
10.1 Cassegrain antenna......Page 401
10.2 Monopulse null depth......Page 402
10.3 Monopulse feed with radial polarization......Page 403
11.1 Introduction......Page 408
11.1.2 Bandwidth - use of delay lines - subarrays......Page 409
Active arrays in transmission......Page 411
Active arrays on receive......Page 412
11.2.1 General structure......Page 413
Phase shifter structures......Page 414
Corporate feed......Page 418
Feed network using a lens between two parallel planes......Page 420
‘Disk’ feed network......Page 421
Phased reflector array......Page 422
11.3.1 Basic equation - array factor......Page 423
11.3.2 Uniform illumination and constant phase gradient......Page 424
11.3.3 Half-power beamwidth......Page 427
11.3.5 Condition to prevent grating lobes from occurring in the scanning region......Page 428
Application: difference pattern......Page 429
11.3.7 Effect of element directivity......Page 430
11.4.1 Array operating on transmission......Page 431
Active reflection coefficient......Page 433
Form of the coupling coefficients......Page 434
Mutual coupling......Page 435
Expression for ρ(τ) in a simple theoretical model......Page 436
11.4.6 Study of an array of open-ended guides considered as a periodic structure......Page 438
11.5.1 Case where all phase shifters are fed in phase......Page 439
11.5.2 Effects of quantization when the phase origin varies from one phase shifter to another......Page 441
11.6 Frequency - Scanned Arrays......Page 445
11.7.1 Introduction......Page 447
11.7.2 General properties of multi-port networks......Page 448
Orthogonality of the illuminations of an array......Page 450
Orthogonality of the characteristic functions......Page 451
Directional beams......Page 452
Butler matrix9......Page 453
Blass matrix......Page 456
Problem of multiple-beam angular coverage......Page 459
Quasi optical matrix: Rotman lens......Page 460
Passive and active phased arrays - requirements for modules......Page 463
Optical control of phased arrays......Page 465
Implementation......Page 467
11.8.3 MEMS technology in phased arrays......Page 470
RF MEMS phase shifters......Page 472
11.8.4 Circular, cylindrical, spherical and conformal arrays......Page 473
Beam cophasal excitation......Page 474
Phase mode excitation......Page 475
Null steering......Page 479
Direction finding......Page 480
Isolated omnidirectional patterns......Page 481
Sectoral phase modes22......Page 482
Spherical phase modes23......Page 486
Introduction......Page 490
Synthesis techniques for irregular arrays......Page 491
Statistical methods......Page 492
Average gain (or average power pattern)......Page 493
Probability function of diffuse sidelobes......Page 495
Retrodirective arrays......Page 496
Self-phasing arrays......Page 498
Random symmetrical pair arrays......Page 500
Condition for maximum gain......Page 502
Conclusion......Page 503
11A.2 Gain of a beam cophasal circular array......Page 504
11A.3 Radiation pattern of a beam cophasal circular array......Page 505
11A.4 Example: cosα element patterns......Page 506
11A.5 Comparison of linear and circular arrays......Page 507
Further Reading......Page 509
11.1 Design of an electronically-scanned array antenna......Page 510
11.2 Grating lobes produced by use of phased subarrays fed by delay lines......Page 512
12.1.1 Applications of polarimetry in radar and telecommunications......Page 514
12.1.3 Basics......Page 516
12.2.2 Algebraic representation of elliptical polarization......Page 518
12.2.3 Normalized Cartesian coordinate system......Page 520
12.2.4 Base of circular polarizations......Page 521
12.2.5 Polarization ratio......Page 523
12.2.6 Polarization diagram......Page 524
12.2.7 Polarization coupling to the receiving antenna......Page 527
12.3.1 Definition and physical origin......Page 530
Physical examples......Page 531
12.3.2 Coherence matrix......Page 532
12.3.3 Completely unpolarized wave......Page 534
12.3.4 Completely polarized wave......Page 535
12.3.6 Decomposition of a partially polarized wave......Page 536
12.3.7 Geometrical interpretation of the preceding results: Stokes parameters and Poincaré sphere......Page 537
12.3.8 Polarization coupling and Stokes vectors......Page 540
12.4.2 Sinclair diffraction matrix......Page 542
12.5.2 Application example......Page 553
12.6.2 Non-symmetrical polarization separator......Page 557
12.6.3 Semi-symmetrical polarization separator......Page 558
12.6.4 Symmetrical polarization separator (turnstile)......Page 559
12.6.5 Dielectric vane polarizer......Page 560
Exercises......Page 562
13.1 Introduction......Page 563
13.2.1 Concept of spatial frequency......Page 564
13.2.2 Consequences of the limitation of the aperture dimensions on thepro perties of the radiation characteristic function......Page 565
Application of the sampling theorem......Page 566
Application of Bernstein’s theorem......Page 568
13.2.3 Consequences of the limitation of the aperture dimensions on the ‘gain’ function of the antenna......Page 569
13.3.1 Statement of problem......Page 570
13.3.2 Generalization of the approximation method......Page 572
13.3.3 Use of sampling methods......Page 573
13.3.4 Role of phase - stationary phase method......Page 576
13.3.5 Pattern synthesis for a focusing system......Page 579
13.4.1 Introduction......Page 580
13.5.1 Introduction......Page 583
13.5.2 Optical or microwave imaging and linear filters......Page 584
13.5.4 Case where the antenna is treated as an aperture......Page 585
13.5.5 Spectrum of fixed echoes of a rotating radar......Page 586
Further Reading......Page 587
13.1 Woodward synthesis......Page 588
13.2 Optimum ‘difference’ illumination......Page 589
14.1 Introduction......Page 591
14.2.1 Principles of synthetic antennas......Page 592
14.2.2 Synthetic receive array with non-directional beam......Page 593
14.2.3 Synthetic receive array with multiple beams......Page 594
Binary amplitude coding......Page 595
Sideways-looking Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)1,2......Page 596
14.3.1 Introduction......Page 600
14.3.3 Estimation of the elevation angle of a low-altitude target above a reflecting plane......Page 601
14.3.4 Effect of noise: a posteriori probabilities and decision theory......Page 604
Choice of decision criterion......Page 605
14.4.1 Introduction......Page 606
14.4.2 Conditions for incoherence......Page 607
14.4.3 Multiplicative arrays......Page 608
14.4.4 Relationship between an angular distribution of incoherent sources and the observed field: the Van Cittert-Zernicke Theorem......Page 610
Calculation of the coherence function:......Page 611
Generalization to three dimensions......Page 612
14.4.5 Sampling of the coherence function......Page 613
14.4.6 Measurement of the coefficients of correlation or covariance C (n-n′)......Page 614
14.4.7 The covariance matrix......Page 615
14.5.1 Introduction......Page 616
14.5.2 Classical method of ‘correlogram’......Page 617
14.5.4 Estimation of T under conditions of Maximum Entropy......Page 618
14.5.5 Factorization of T(τ ) - properties......Page 619
14.5.6 Determination of the coefficients an in equation (14.71)......Page 620
14.5.8 Numerical example......Page 622
14.5.9 Minimum redundance arrays......Page 623
14.6.1 Introduction......Page 625
14.6.2 The MUSIC algorithm......Page 626
14.6.3 Illustration of the MUSIC algorithm......Page 630
14.6.4 Other superresolution algorithms......Page 631
14.6.5 Superresolution with circular arrays......Page 632
14.7.2 What is an adaptive array ?......Page 633
14.7.3 Simple example: two-element array......Page 634
14.7.4 Howells-Applebaum correlation loop17......Page 637
14.7.6 Effect of internal receiver noise......Page 640
14.7.7 Multiple correlation loops: the coherent sidelobe canceller (CSLC)......Page 642
14.7.8 The optimum array......Page 644
14.7.10 Digital implementation......Page 647
14.7.11 Smart antennas......Page 648
Applications in radiocommunications......Page 649
Applications in radar: Space-Time Adaptive Processing (STAP)......Page 650
Waveform diversity......Page 653
14A.3 Uncertainty relative to an alternative......Page 654
14A.4 First generalization: entropy of a set of events......Page 655
14A.5 Second generalization: random variable......Page 656
14A.7 Entropy and spectral density......Page 657
14A.8 Justification of this relationship......Page 658
Further Reading......Page 661
14.1 Coherence function of the Sun......Page 663
15.1 Introduction......Page 665
15.2.2 Two-antenna measurement......Page 666
15.2.4 Extrapolation......Page 667
15.3 Radiation Pattern Measurements......Page 668
15.3.1 Anechoic chambers and far-field ranges......Page 669
15.3.2 Compact ranges......Page 673
15.3.3 Wavefront quality......Page 675
15.3.4 Near-field techniques......Page 676
15.3.5 Other techniques......Page 679
15.3.6 Polarization......Page 682
15.4.1 Principles......Page 683
15.4.2 Limitations......Page 685
15.5.2 Direct measurement of G/T using solar noise......Page 686
15.6 Impedance and Bandwidth......Page 688
15.7 Measurments of Cellular Radio Handset Antennas......Page 690
15.7.1 Specific Absorption Rate......Page 691
15.7.2 Reverberation chambers......Page 692
Further Reading......Page 694
15.4 Solar method of G/T measurement......Page 695
Index......Page 697