Mid-infrared Optoelectronics: Materials, Devices, and Applications

✍ Scribed by Eric Tournié (editor)

• Publisher: Woodhead Publishing
• Year: 2019
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 754
• Series: Woodhead Publishing in Electronic and Optical Materials
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Mid-infrared Optoelectronics: Materials, Devices, and Applications addresses the new materials, devices and applications that have emerged over the last decade, along with exciting areas of research. Sections cover fundamentals, light sources, photodetectors, new approaches, and the application of mid-IR devices, with sections discussing LEDs, laser diodes, and quantum cascade lasers, mid-infrared optoelectronics, emerging research areas, dilute bismide and nitride alloys, Group-IV materials, gallium nitride heterostructures, and new nonlinear materials. Finally, the most relevant applications of mid-infrared devices are reviewed in industry, gas sensing, spectroscopy, and imaging.

This book presents a key reference for materials scientists, engineers and professionals working in R&D in the area of semiconductors and optoelectronics.

✦ Table of Contents

Front Cover
Mid-infrared Optoelectronics: Materials, Devices, and Applications
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
Preface
Part One Fundamentals
1 The physics of mid-infrared semiconductor materials and heterostructures
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Fundamental physics of interband devices
1.3 Type I QW lasers
1.3.1 Temperature dependence measurements
1.3.2 High-pressure studies
1.4 Type II QW lasers
1.4.1 InP “W” lasers
1.4.2 Type II ICLs
1.5 Emerging novel III–V materials for mid-IR device applications
1.5.1 GaAsBiN-based type I and type II heterostructures
1.5.2 InGaAsBi/InP material system for MIR applications
1.5.3 2.7- μ m GaSbBi/GaSb laser structures for MIR applications
1.6 Physical properties of mid-IR QCLs
1.7 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Part Two Light sources
2 Mid-infrared light-emitting diodes
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Metamorphic structures on GaAs
2.2.1 LEDs based on bulk AlInSb active regions
2.2.2 Type II InAsSb/InAs quantum well LEDs on GaAs
2.2.3 Type I InAsSb/AlInAs QW on GaAs
2.2.4 Type I InSb/AlInSb QW LEDs on GaAs
2.2.5 Quantum cascade LEDs
2.3 Resonant cavity LEDs
2.4 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
3 Interband mid-infrared lasers
3.1 Introduction
3.2 GaSb-based materials for interband mid-infrared lasers
3.2.1 Electronic properties
3.2.2 Epitaxial growth
3.3 GaSb-based type I Fabry-Pérot LDs
3.3.1 AlGaAsSb/GaInAsSb quantum well LDs
3.3.2 AlGaInAsSb/GaInAsSb QW LDs
3.3.3 GaSb-based type I cascade LDs
3.3.4 GaSb-based lasers integrated on GaAs and Si substrates
3.4 GaSb-based type I single-frequency LDs
3.4.1 GaSb-based type I distributed feedback LDs
3.4.1.1 Lateral metal-grating DFB lasers
3.4.1.2 Lateral sidewall corrugation DFB lasers
3.4.1.3 Buried-grating DFB lasers
3.4.1.4 Photonic crystal single-mode LDs
3.4.2 GaSb-based type I VCSELs
3.4.2.1 VCSELs emitting between 2 and 3  μ m
Buried-tunnel junction VCSELs
Monolithic VCSELs
3.4.2.2 VCSELs emitting above 3  μ m
3.5 GaSb-based type II ICLs
3.5.1 General overview
3.5.2 Single-frequency GaSb-based ICLs
3.6 Other materials systems
3.7 Conclusion: Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Further reading
4 Quantum cascade lasers
4.1 Quantum cascade laser fundamentals
4.1.1 The structure parameters
4.1.2 Self-consistent band diagram: Doping effect
4.1.2.1 Example: A single QW structure
4.1.2.2 Example: QCL band diagram
4.1.3 Free carrier absorption
4.2 QCL fabrication
4.2.1 Introduction to fabrication
4.2.2 MBE of QCLs
4.2.2.1 Basics of MBE growth
4.2.2.2 Strained-layer epitaxy
4.2.2.3 Epitaxial structure
4.2.3 QCL chip fabrication
4.2.4 Fabrication of BH QCL
4.3 Power scaling
4.3.1 QCL properties contributing to emission power
4.3.2 Threshold current and power density as functions of cascade number
4.3.3 Thermal considerations for high power
4.3.4 CW operation with small number of cascades
4.3.5 Beam quality of broad-area CW QCLs
4.4 External cavity quantum cascade laser
4.4.1 Basics for lasing
4.4.2 Optical loss of FP-/EC-mode
4.4.3 Lasing and parasitic oscillation
4.4.4 Tunability of EC-QCL
4.4.4.1 Grating in Littrow condition
4.4.4.2 Effective reflection in EC system
4.4.4.3 Lasing condition of Littrow-type EC laser
4.4.4.4 Coating effect to power restriction
4.4.4.5 Coating effect to tunability
References
5 High-brightness quantum cascade lasers
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Brightness, power, and efficiency
5.3 Active region design
5.4 QCL waveguides and transverse modes
5.5 Master oscillator power amplifier
5.6 Engineered Sidewall Losses
5.7 Cladding losses
5.8 Geometrical power scaling and temperature effects
5.9 Geometrical mode control
5.10 Summary
References
6 Mid-infrared frequency conversion in quasiphase matched semiconductors
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Designing mid-IR QPM semiconductors
6.3 Fabrication of OP templates
6.3.1 Gallium arsenide
6.3.2 Gallium phosphide
6.3.3 Gallium antimonide
6.4 Epitaxial growth of bulk OP-crystals
6.4.1 Gallium arsenide
6.4.2 Gallium phosphide
6.5 Epitaxial growth of OP waveguides
6.5.1 Gallium arsenide
6.5.2 Gallium phosphide
6.5.3 Gallium antimonide
6.6 Application perspectives
6.6.1 Short pulse durations
6.6.2 Intermediate pulse durations
6.6.3 Continuous wave regimes
6.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Further reading
Part Three Photodetectors
7 HgCdTe photodetectors
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Historical perspective
7.3 Impact of epitaxial growth on development of HgCdTe detectors
7.4 HgCdTe photodiodes
7.4.1 Junction formation
7.4.1.1 Hg in-diffusion
7.4.1.2 Ion milling
7.4.1.3 Ion implantation
7.4.1.4 Reactive ion etching
7.4.1.5 Doping during growth
7.4.1.6 Passivation
7.4.1.7 Device processing
7.4.2 Fundamental limitation to HgCdTe photodiode performance
7.4.3 Nonfundamental limitation to HgCdTe photodiode performance
7.4.3.1 Current-voltage characteristics
7.4.3.2 Dislocations and 1/ f noise
7.4.4 Avalanche photodiodes
7.4.5 Auger-suppressed photodiodes
7.4.6 Barrier photodetectors
7.5 HgCdTe FPAs
7.5.1 Trends in IR FPAs
7.5.2 IR FPA considerations
7.5.3 Influence of ROIC on photodiode array performance
7.5.4 Focal plane arrays
7.5.5 Third-generation detectors
7.6 HgCdTe future prospect
7.6.1 P-i-N HgCdTe photodiodes
7.6.2 Manufacturability of FPAs
7.7 Conclusions
References
Further reading
8 Quantum cascade detectors: A review
8.1 Introduction
8.2 QCD state of the art
8.3 Device physics
8.3.1 Electronic transport
8.3.1.1 Quantitative models
8.3.1.2 Insightful pictures and trends
8.3.2 Noise
8.3.2.1 Definitions
8.3.2.2 1/ f noise, infinite power NSD, and nonstationary signals
8.3.2.3 Shot and Johnson (thermal) noises
8.3.2.4 Dark and optical noises
8.4 QWIPs vs QCDs
8.5 Optical coupling
8.5.1 Brewster angle, 45 degrees, gratings, corrugation, etc
8.5.2 Nanophotonics
8.6 A toolbox for physics
8.6.1 High speed and heterodyne
8.6.2 SWIR QCDs
8.6.3 Integrated QCLD
8.7 Conclusion
References
Further reading
9 InAs/GaSb type II superlattices: A developing material system for third generation of IR imaging
9.1 Introduction
9.2 High-performance InAs/GaSb T2SL-based photodetectors covering whole IR spectrum
9.2.1 Short-wavelength IR photodetectors
9.2.2 Extended-SWIR photodetectors and FPAs
9.2.3 MWIR photodetectors and FPAs
9.2.4 LWIR photodetectors and FPAs
9.2.5 VLWIR photodetectors and FPAs
9.3 High-performance InAs/GaSb T2SL photodetectors and FPAs on GaAs substrate
9.4 High-performance multicolor photodetectors and FPAs
9.5 Ga-free InAs/InAs 1 − x Sb x /AlAs 1 − x Sb x type II superlattice photodetectors
9.5.1 Type II superlattices: InAs/GaSb vs. InAs/InAs 1 − x Sb x
9.5.2 High-performance SWIR photodetectors based on Ga-free T2SLs
9.5.3 High-performance LWIR photodetectors based on Ga-free T2SLs
9.5.4 High-performance VLWIR photodetectors based on Ga-free T2SLs
9.5.5 Dual-band IR detection based on Ga-free InAs/InAs 1 − x Sb x T2SLs
References
Further reading
10 InAsSb-based photodetectors
List of Acronyms
10.1 Introduction
10.2 History and growth methods
10.3 Material properties
10.4 Photodetectors
10.5 Summary and future outlook
References
Further reading
Part Four New approaches
11 Dilute bismide and nitride alloys for mid-IR optoelectronic devices
11.1 Dilute bismide
11.1.1 GaSbBi
11.1.1.1 MBE growth
11.1.1.2 LPE growth
11.1.1.3 Point defects
11.1.1.4 Electronic and optical properties
11.1.2 AlSbBi
11.1.3 InAsBi
11.1.3.1 MOVPE growth of InAsBi
11.1.3.2 MBE growth of InAsBi
11.1.3.3 Quarternary InAsSbBi and InGaAsBi
11.1.3.4 InSbBi
11.1.4 Theoretical simulations for dilute bismide and mid-IR devices
11.1.5 Dilute bismide mid-IR devices
11.1.6 Future outlook
11.2 Dilute nitrides
11.2.1 Electronic band structure
11.2.1.1 BAC model
11.2.1.2 N-Clusters and point defects
11.2.2 Growth and optical properties
11.2.2.1 InNAs
11.2.2.2 GaNSb
11.2.2.3 InNSb
11.2.2.4 In-rich GaInNAs
11.2.2.5 GaInNSb
11.2.2.6 InNAsSb
11.2.3 Outlook remarks
Acknowledgment
References
12 Group IV photonics using (Si)GeSn technology toward mid-IR applications
12.1 SiGeSn/GeSn material growth techniques
12.1.1 Challenges of growth
12.1.2 Basic material growth via CVD
12.1.3 Growth of GeSn heterostructure
12.2 GeSn/SiGeSn-based emitters
12.2.1 GeSn LED
12.2.2 GeSn optically pumped laser
12.3 GeSn SWIR and MWIR photodetectors
12.3.1 GeSn photoconductive detectors
12.3.2 GeSn p-i-n photodiode detectors
12.4 Outlook
Acknowledgment
References
13 Intersubband transitions in GaN-based heterostructures
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Properties of III-nitride semiconductors
13.3 Intersubband absorption in polar GaN/AlGaN quantum wells
13.4 Quantum wells in alternative crystallographic orientations
13.5 Nanowire heterostructures
13.6 Intersubband devices based on III-nitrides
13.6.1 Infrared photodetectors
13.6.2 Infrared emitters
13.7 Conclusions
References
14 III–V/Si mid-IR photonic integrated circuits
14.1 Platforms addressing the mid-IR
14.1.1 Si-based platforms for mid-IR
14.1.2 Ge-based platforms for mid-IR
14.2 Alternative platforms for mid-IR and future challenges
14.3 Heterogeneous integration of III–V-on-Si PICs
14.3.1 Heterogeneous integration technology
14.3.2 Heterogeneously integrated III–V-on-Si lasers
14.3.3 Mid-IR III–V-on-Si photodetectors
14.3.4 Mid-IR III–V/Si external cavity laser
References
Further reading
Part Five Application of mid-IR devices
15 Quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy for gas sensing applications
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Fundamentals of QEPAS
15.2.1 Quartz tuning fork
15.2.2 Dual-tube acoustic microresonators (on-beam)
15.2.3 Wavelength modulation and dual-frequency detection
15.2.4 Amplitude modulation and broadband absorbers
15.3 QEPAS configurations
15.3.1 Off-beam
15.3.2 Fiber-coupled
15.3.3 Evanescent-wave
15.3.4 Multi-QTFs
15.3.5 Modulation cancellation method
15.3.6 Beat frequency QEPAS
15.3.7 Intracavity QEPAS
15.4 Custom QTFs for QEPAS
15.4.1 Euler-Bernoulli model
15.4.2 Damping effects
15.4.2.1 Air damping
15.4.2.2 Support losses
15.4.2.3 Thermoelastic damping losses
15.4.3 Quality factor
15.4.4 Overtone modes
15.4.5 Overview of custom QTFs performance
Custom QTFs with dual-tube mR
15.5 Novel QEPAS approaches exploiting custom QTFs
15.5.1 QEPAS with QTF vibrating at the first overtone flexural mode
15.5.2 Single-tube mR systems
15.5.3 Double-antinode excited quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectrophone
15.5.4 Simultaneous dual-gas detection
15.6 QEPAS trace gas detection results overview
15.6.1 Long-term stability and Allan variance
15.6.2 Comparison with existing optical techniques
15.6.3 Examples of real-world applications
15.6.3.1 Environmental monitoring
15.6.3.2 Leak detection
15.6.3.3 Hydrocarbon detection
15.6.3.4 Breath sensing
15.7 Conclusions and future developments
References
16 Mid-infrared gas-sensing systems and applications
16.1 Application areas and markets for mid-infrared gas-sensing systems
16.2 Fundamentals of absorption spectroscopy
16.3 Properties of gases with high sensing demand
16.3.1 CO 2
16.3.2 CO
16.3.3 H 2 S
16.3.4 CH 4
16.3.5 SO 2
16.3.6 NH 3
16.3.7 NO 2
16.4 MIR gas sensors and measurement systems using incoherent radiation
16.5 Applications of MIR gas sensors and systems using incoherent radiation
16.5.1 Environmental monitoring systems
16.5.2 Hazardous gases
16.5.3 Leak detection
16.5.4 Automotive applications
16.5.5 Breath analysis
16.6 MIR laser-based systems
16.6.1 Narrow-band tunable laser spectroscopy systems
16.6.2 Broadband laser spectroscopy systems
16.6.3 Photoacoustic detection with lasers
16.6.4 Frequency comb-based gas-sensing systems
16.6.5 Alternative detection techniques
16.7 Applications of laser-based systems
16.7.1 Hazardous gas detection and monitoring systems
16.7.1.1 Leak detection of natural gas
16.7.1.2 Toxic gas detection at industrial infrastructures and area surveillance
CO
H 2 S
SO 2
Formaldehyde, CH 2 O
NH 3
Phosgene
16.7.2 Process gas measurement
16.7.2.1 Composition of natural gas
16.7.2.2 Ethylene production
16.7.2.3 Desulfurization of oil and gas: H 2 S and SO 2
16.7.2.4 Combustion processes
16.7.3 Automotive exhaust emission measurement
16.7.4 Plasma processes
16.7.5 Research systems
16.7.5.1 Atmospheric trace gases
16.7.5.2 Soil gas emissions
16.7.5.3 Breath analysis
16.8 Conclusion and outlook
References
Further reading
Index
Back Cover