Cover......Page 1
Half Title......Page 2
Series Page......Page 3
Title......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Table of Contents......Page 6
Editorial......Page 14
About the Book Series Editor......Page 16
Preface......Page 19
About the Editor......Page 27
Author Data......Page 29
Contributors List......Page 36
List of Tables......Page 38
List of Figures......Page 40
Part I Proof Load Testing of Bridges......Page 49
1.1 Introduction......Page 50
1.2.1 Dutch practice......Page 52
1.2.2 AASHTO Manual for Bridge Evaluation method......Page 55
1.3.1 Loading methods......Page 57
1.3.2 Monitoring bridge behavior during the test......Page 60
1.3.3 Stop criteria......Page 63
1.4.1 On-site data validation of sensor output......Page 66
1.4.2 Final verification of stop criteria......Page 67
1.5 Bridge assessment based on proof load tests......Page 68
1.6 Summary and conclusions......Page 70
References......Page 72
2.1 Introduction......Page 74
2.1.1 Load rating of bridges......Page 76
2.1.2 Load testing of bridges......Page 78
2.2.1 In-depth inspection and field measurements......Page 79
2.2.2 Magnel diagrams......Page 81
2.2.3 Rebar scan......Page 83
2.2.3.2 Box beam bridges......Page 84
2.2.3.3 I-girder bridges......Page 85
2.2.4 Load testing......Page 86
2.2.5 Serviceability ratings using proof test results......Page 89
2.2.6 Strength ratings using load rating software......Page 90
2.3 Case studies......Page 91
2.3.1 Bridge 8761 (double T-beam)......Page 92
2.3.2 Bridge 8825 (box beam)......Page 99
2.3.3 Bridge 8588 (I-girder)......Page 104
2.4 Conclusions......Page 110
References......Page 111
3.1.1 Existing bridges in the Netherlands......Page 113
3.1.2.1 General information and history......Page 115
3.1.2.2 Material properties......Page 116
3.2.1 Preliminary assessment......Page 117
3.2.2 Inspection......Page 118
3.2.3.1 Effect of alkali-silica reaction on capacity......Page 122
3.2.3.3 Monitoring results......Page 126
3.2.4.1 Finite element model......Page 127
3.2.4.2 Resulting target proof load......Page 130
3.2.5 Expected capacity and behavior......Page 131
3.2.6 Sensor plan......Page 133
3.3.1 Loading protocol......Page 134
3.3.2.2 Deflection profiles......Page 136
3.3.2.3 Strains and crack width......Page 137
3.3.2.5 Influence of temperature......Page 139
3.4.1 Development of final graphs......Page 142
3.4.2.1 ACI 437.2M acceptance criteria......Page 143
3.4.2.3 Proposed stop criteria......Page 145
3.4.3 Final rating......Page 146
3.4.5 Discussion and elements for future research......Page 147
3.5 Summary and conclusions......Page 148
References......Page 149
Part II Testing of Buildings......Page 152
4.1.1 Introduction......Page 153
4.1.2 The role of load testing in the development of reinforced concrete constructions in Europe......Page 154
4.1.3 Development of standards and guidelines......Page 156
4.1.4 Proof load testing overshadowed by structural analysis......Page 158
4.1.5 Further theoretical and practical developments of the recent past......Page 159
4.2.1 Principal safety considerations......Page 161
4.2.2.1 Introduction......Page 163
4.2.2.2 Basics and range of application......Page 165
4.2.2.3 Planning of loading tests......Page 168
4.2.2.4 Execution and evaluation......Page 170
4.2.3 Load testing in the United States......Page 172
4.2.4 Load testing in Great Britain......Page 173
4.2.5 Load testing in other countries......Page 174
4.2.6 Comparison and assessment......Page 175
4.3.1 Safety concept......Page 177
4.3.2 Shear load testing......Page 178
4.4 Practical recommendations......Page 181
References......Page 182
Part III Advances in Measurement Techniques for Load Testing......Page 186
5.1 Introduction......Page 187
5.2.1 Theory......Page 188
5.2.2 Equipment......Page 189
5.2.3 Strengths and limitations......Page 190
5.2.4.1 Structural system details and instrumentation......Page 191
5.2.4.4 Results......Page 194
5.3.1 Theory......Page 197
5.3.3.2 Limitations......Page 199
5.3.4 Case studies......Page 200
5.3.4.1 Estimation of cable forces on a lift bridge using natural vibration frequencies......Page 203
5.3.4.2 Identifying bridge natural vibration frequencies with forced vibration test......Page 205
5.4.1 Digital image correlation (DIC) for deformation measurements......Page 206
5.6 Outlook and future trends......Page 207
References......Page 208
6.1 Introduction......Page 211
6.2.1 Definitions......Page 212
6.2.2 AE parameters for damage detection......Page 213
6.2.3 Damage indicators......Page 214
6.2.3.2 CR-LR plots......Page 215
6.2.3.3 Peak cumulative signal strength ratio......Page 216
6.2.3.6 Modified index of damage......Page 217
6.3 Source location during load tests......Page 218
6.3.2 Zonal and one-dimensional source location......Page 219
6.3.3 2D source location......Page 222
6.3.4.1 3D source location......Page 226
6.3.4.2 Crack classification and moment tensor analysis......Page 230
6.4 Discussion and recommendations for field applications......Page 234
References......Page 236
7.1.1 Background of fiber optics operation......Page 240
7.1.3 Scattering in optical fibers......Page 243
7.1.4 State of the art of fiber optic sensors in load testing......Page 245
7.1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of fiber optic sensors versus other sensors for load testing......Page 247
7.2.2.1 Bending tests of concrete slabs......Page 248
7.2.2.2 Shear tests of partially prestressed concrete beams......Page 255
7.2.3 Application of DOFS in real structures......Page 260
7.2.3.1 San Cugat bridge in Barcelona......Page 261
7.2.3.2 Sarajevo bridge in Barcelona......Page 265
7.2.3.3 Lessons learned from the field tests......Page 270
7.3 Conclusions......Page 271
References......Page 272
8.1 Introduction......Page 276
8.2 Radar technology and the microwave interferometer......Page 278
8.3.2 Comparison with position transducer data......Page 285
8.4 Static and dynamic tests of a steel-composite bridge......Page 286
8.4.2 Load test: experimental procedures and radar results......Page 288
8.4.3 Ambient vibration test: experimental procedures and radar results......Page 292
8.5 A challenging application: structural health monitoring of stay cables......Page 294
8.6.2 Recommendations for practice......Page 300
References......Page 301
Part IV Load Testing in the Framework of Reliability- Based Decision-Making and Bridge Management Decisions......Page 304
9.1 Introduction......Page 305
9.2.1 General principles......Page 306
9.2.2 Effect of degradation......Page 309
9.2.3 Target reliability index and applied loads......Page 311
9.3.1 Principles......Page 312
9.3.2.1 Description of viaduct De Beek......Page 313
9.3.2.2 Determination of required target load......Page 316
9.3.2.3 Discussion of results......Page 318
9.3.3.1 Description of Halvemaans Bridge......Page 319
9.3.3.2 Determination of proof load......Page 320
9.4 Systems reliability considerations......Page 323
9.5 Life-cycle cost considerations......Page 326
9.6 Summary and conclusions......Page 331
References......Page 332
10.1 Introduction......Page 337
10.2 Deterioration of RC structures in corrosive environments......Page 338
10.3 Reliability-based approach to structural assessment......Page 339
10.4.1 Carbonation-induced corrosion......Page 340
10.4.2 Chloride-induced corrosion......Page 345
10.5.1 Corrosion rate......Page 348
10.5.2 Cracking of concrete cover......Page 349
10.5.2.1 Time to crack initiation......Page 350
10.5.2.2 Time to excessive cracking......Page 351
10.5.3 Effect of corrosion on bond between concrete and reinforcing steel......Page 352
10.5.4.2 Loss of cross-sectional area due to pitting corrosion......Page 355
10.6 Effect of spatial variability on corrosion initiation and propagation......Page 358
10.7 Influence of climate change......Page 359
10.8.1 Simple-span RC bridge โ case study description......Page 362
10.8.2 Reliability-based assessment of remaining service life of the bridge subject to carbonation......Page 363
10.8.3 Reliability-based assessment of remaining service life of the bridge subject to chloride contamination......Page 365
10.8.4 Concluding remarks......Page 367
References......Page 368
11.1 Introduction......Page 372
11.2.2 Which aim of load test is provided......Page 373
11.3.1 Inspection regime of structures......Page 374
11.3.4 Development of the traffic......Page 375
11.4.1 Bridge management......Page 376
11.4.2 Numerical tools......Page 378
11.4.4 Strengthening......Page 380
11.5 Conclusions......Page 381
References......Page 382
12.1 Introduction......Page 386
12.2 Overview of load tests on existing structures......Page 389
12.3 Inspections and re-examination......Page 391
12.4 Conclusions and outlook......Page 394
References......Page 395
Part V Conclusions and Outlook......Page 398
13.1 Current body of knowledge on load testing......Page 399
13.2 Current research and open research questions......Page 400
13.3 Conclusions and practical recommendations......Page 401
Author Index......Page 403
Subject Index......Page 405
Structures and Infrastructures Series......Page 415