Cover
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Title
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Contents
Figures
Tables
Acknowledgements
1 A usage-based perspective on language
1.1 The nature of language
1.2 Gradience and variation in linguistic structure
1.2.1 Units: morphemes
1.2.2 Language-specific categories that are heterogeneous and gradient: the English auxiliary
1.2.3 Specific instances of construction vary: I donโt know, I donโt inhale
1.2.4 The role of gradience and variation
1.3 Domain-general processes
1.4 Usage-based grammar
1.5 Sources of evidence
1.6 Precursors
1.7 Questions that are asked in this framework
2 Rich memory for language: exemplar representation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Contrast with the parsimonious storage of generative theory and its structuralist precursors
2.2.1 The structuralist tradition
2.2.2 A role for imitation
2.2.3 Early experimental results
2.3 Exemplar models in phonology
2.3.1 The Reducing Effect of frequency
2.3.2 Sociophonetic variation
2.3.3 Change in adult phonology
2.4 Morphology
2.4.1 Networks of associations
2.4.2 The Conserving Effect of token frequency
2.5 Syntax
2.5.1 Word strings
2.5.2 Constructions
2.5.3 Evidence for an exemplar representation for constructions
2.6 Conclusion
3 Chunking and degrees of autonomy
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Chunking
3.3 The reducing effect of frequency
3.3.1 Reduction of words in context
3.3.2 Causes of reduction
3.3.3 Differential reduction within high-frequency chunks
3.3.4 Autonomy: the structure and meaning of chunks
3.4 Frequency effects and morphosyntactic change
3.4.1 Changes in morphosyntactic analysability and semantic compositionality
3.4.2 Increasing autonomy
3.4.3 Grammaticalization
3.4.4 Autonomy and exemplar cum network model
3.5 Meaning and inference
3.6 Conclusion
4 Analogy and similarity
4.1 Analogy and similarity in the processing of novel utterances
4.2 Analogy as a domain-general process
4.3 Similarity to prior utterances
4.4 Analogy in child language
4.5 Analogy in language change
4.6 Analogy and constructions
4.6.1 Diachronic analogy in morphosyntax
4.6.2 Analogy as the source of new constructions
4.7 Analogy vs rules
4.8 Analogy and frequency
4.9 Conclusion
5 Categorization and the distribution of constructions in corpora
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Why constructions?
5.3 Categorization: exemplar categories
5.4 Dimensions upon which constructions vary: degree of fixedness vs. schematicity in the slots of constructions
5.5 Prefabs as the centres of categories
5.6 Prototype categories:ย โbecomeโ verbs in Spanish
5.6.1 Failures of necessary and sufficient conditions
5.6.2 More local categorization
5.6.3 Similarity in categorization
5.6.4 Multiple clusters in constructional categories
5.7 The role of the most frequent member of the category
5.8 Family resemblance structure
5.9 Categories which are more schematic
5.10 Productivity
5.11 Centrality of membership is not autonomy
5.12 Problems with Collostructional Analysis
5.13 Greater degrees of abstraction
5.14 Conclusion
6 Where do constructions come from? Synchrony and diachrony in a usage-based theory
6.1 Diachrony as part of linguistic theory
6.2 Grammaticalization
6.3 How grammaticalization occurs
6.4 The explanatory power of grammaticalization
6.5 Criticisms of grammaticalization:ย unidirectionality and grammaticalization theory
6.6 The source of change: language acquisition or language use?
6.7 Conclusions
7 Reanalysis or the gradual creation of new categories? The English Auxiliary
7.1 Approaches to reanalysis
7.2 Auxiliaries in English
7.3 Grammaticalization of the modals and other auxiliaries
7.4 A new negative construction
7.5 An old construction for questions
7.6 A second pattern emerges
7.7 Two patterns for negatives with not
7.8 Infinitive with to
7.9 Periphrastic do
7.10 Two hypotheses
7.11 Lexical diffusion
7.12 Conclusions: constructions and adult-based change
8 Gradient constituency and gradual reanalysis
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Chunking and constituency
8.3 Categorization and constituency
8.4 Constituent structure of complex prepositions
8.5 Semantic change: in spite of
8.6 Decategorialization as a result of the loss of analysability
8.7 Reanalysis as gradual
8.8 The Spanish Progressive: advanced grammaticalization in prefabs
8.9 Conclusions
9 Conventionalization and the local vs. the general: Modern English can
9.1 Introduction
9.2 General vs. local patterns: negation
9.3 Constructions with cognitive/epistemic verbs
9.3.1 Canโt seem
9.3.2 Canโt think, canโt believe, canโt say: skewed distribution in constructions
9.4 A more equal distribution: can and canโt afford
9.5 Affirmatives more frequent than negatives
9.6 Interim conclusions
9.7 Can and canโt remember
9.8 Why does English distinguish remember and can remember?
9.9 Conclusions
10 Exemplars and grammatical meaning: the specific and the general
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Grammatical meaning comes from lexical meaning
10.3 Generalization of meaning: the case of English can
10.3.1 Overview
10.3.2 Can in Middle English
10.4 Pragmatic strengthening
10.4.1 Futures
10.4.2 In spite of
10.5 Retention of lexical meaning
10.6 Absorption of meaning from context
10.7 Zero morphemes
10.8 Nature of semantic categories for grammatical forms
10.9 Invariant, abstract meaning?
10.10 The importance of oppositions
10.11 Meanings evolve to reflect experience
10.12 Conclusions
11 Language as a complex adaptive system: the interaction of cognition, culture and use
11.1 Typology and universals
11.2 Cross-linguistic similarities in a theory of language
11.3 Synchronic observations, diachronic paths and domain-general processes
11.4 Grammaticalization paths as โstrange attractorsโ
11.5 Origins of language from domain-general abilities
11.6 Social factors that shape grammar
11.6.1 Similarities in pragmatic inferencing
11.6.2 Inferencing and morphological typology
11.7 Deictic morphology and cultural type
11.8 Grammaticality, frequency and universals
11.8.1 What people want to talk about
11.8.2 What constructions speakers choose to use
11.8.3 Specificity or generality of meaning
11.8.4 Processing ease/difficulty
11.8.5 Conventionalization of thinking for speaking
11.9 Conclusion:ย explanation for linguistic structures
Notes
Chapter 1 A usagebased perspective on language
Chapter 2 Rich memory for language
Chapter 3 Chunking and degrees of autonomy
Chapter 4 Analogy and similarity
Chapter 5 Categorization and the distribution of constructions in corpora
Chapter 6 Where do constructions come from?
Chapter 7 Reanalysis or the gradual creation of new categories?
Chapter 8 Gradient constituency and gradual reanalysis
Chapter 9 Conventionalization and the local vs. the general
Chapter 10 Exemplars and grammatical meaning
Chapter 11 Language as a complex adaptive system
Bibliography
Index