Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Part I General Introduction
1 The First Half of China’s Land Reform, and the Next Stage
1 The Land System Reform Process: A Retrospective Evaluation
1.1 Collective Ownership and the Household Contracted Management System
1.2 Collective Ownership, the Rural House Site Use System, and Their Changes
1.3 The Arrangement of the Land Conversion System, and How It Has Changed
1.4 Municipal and Local Institutional Arrangements and Their Changes
2 The Land System’s Performance and Predicament
2.1 Land System Arrangements and the Historical Transformation of China’s Economy
2.2 Problems in the Current Land System
2.2.1 The Difficulty of Sustaining the Land-driven Development Model
2.2.2 How Land System Arrangements for Rural Land Lag Behind Agricultural and Rural Transformation
3 Trends of the Next-stage Economy and Reform of the Land System
3.1 Trends of the Next-stage Economy and Changes in Land Functions
3.2 The Next Stage of Land System Reform
References
2 The Implementation of China’s Rural Revitalization Strategy and Land System Reform
1 Raising the Issue
2 The Status of Research at Home and Abroad, with Commentary
2.1 Why Has Agriculture Not Kept Pace with the Pace of Industrialization?
2.2 An Urban Bias Leads to the Urban–Rural Gap
2.3 Overall Planning of Urban and Rural Areas and the Adjustment of Urban–rural Relations
2.4 Interpretation of the Rural Revitalization Strategy Since the 19th National Congress
3 Institutional Arrangements and Institutional Mechanisms Affecting Rural Revitalization
3.1 The Catch-Up Strategy, Urban Bias, and the Subordinate Status of Villages
3.2 The Neglect of Farmers’ Rights to the City
3.3 The Dual Land System and the Villages’ Loss of Development Rights
3.4 The Historical Transformation of the Mode of Agricultural Development and the Inadequacy of the Agricultural Land System
3.5 Rural Differentiation and the Lagging House Site System
4 The Pathways and Institutional Provisions for Rural Revitalization
4.1 The General Idea
4.2 The Target Model
4.3 Optional Pathways
4.4 Increasing the Institutional Supply of Land for Rural Revitalization and “Enlivening Industry, People, and Villages”
References
Part II Research Methods in Property Rights and the Land System
3 Property Rights, Behavior, and Economic Performance
1 The Effects of Property Rights
2 The Definition and Enforcement of Property Rights
3 Why Different Property Rights Arrangements Exist
4 The Relationship Between Property Rights Arrangements and Economic Performance
5 A Simple Conclusion
Reference
4 Perspectives for Understanding Property Rights in Land
1 Property Rights in Land: The Most Basic Institutional Arrangement in a Society
2 Land Property Rights as the Relationship between Rights and Interests Attached to the Land, Not Land as a “Thing” Itself
3 Land Ownership under Different Systems
4 The Contractual Arrangement of Control Rights and Rights Bundles: The Core of Evaluating the Effectiveness of Land Property Rights
5 The Robustness of Land Property Rights: Premised on the Fulfillment of Responsibilities and Obligations
References
5 The Contract Structure and Incomplete Property Rights of the Farmland System
1 Methods of Institutional Economic Analysis
2 The Contract Structure and the Incomplete Property Rights of China’s Current Farmland System
3 A Brief Conclusion
References
6 The Basic Logic of China’s Land Reforms
1 Two Major Constraints on Choice and Change
2 Choice and Change in the Land System
2.1 How Efforts to Reform the Land System Have Never Stopped
2.2 Outcomes of the Logic of “Separating the Two Rights”
3 Choice and Change in the House Site System
4 Choice and Change in the Rural Land Conversion System
5 Land Reform Must Be Done from the Roots
Part III Empirical Studies on the Rural Land System
7 Structures and Changes in the Collective Ownership of Rural Land in China
1 Basic Characteristics of the Studied Areas
2 The Nature of the Household Contracting System in Land Collective Ownership
3 Evolution of Farmland Property Rights After the Contracting of Production to Households
3.1 Factors Determining the Institutional Changes
3.2 Changes in Thinking on Membership and Adjustments of Land System Arrangements
3.3 Changes in Contract Structure and Property Rights Arrangements
4 Conclusion and Policy Implications
8 China’s Rural Land System: Features and Problems
1 Establishment of the Household Contracting System
1.1 Formation of the Household Contract Responsibility System
1.2 Features and Problems of the Current System for Land Contractual Management Rights
2 The House Site System: Features and Problems
2.1 Formation of the House Site System
2.2 The Main Features of the Rural House Site System
2.3 Problems in the Operation of the House Site System
3 The Rural Collective Construction Land System: Features and Problems
3.1 Formation of the Rural Collective Construction Land System
3.2 The Growth Effects of Collective Construction Land
3.3 Institutional Dilemmas in the Use of the Collective Construction Land System
References
9 The Circulation and Market Development of Rural Land Contractual Management Rights
1 Evolution of the Policy on Circulating Rural Land Contractual Management Rights
1.1 A Chronology of the Policy
1.2 The Incremental and Regional Characteristics of the Circulation of Rural Land Contract Management Rights
2 Land Circulation Since Implementation of the Law on Land Contracts in Rural Areas
2.1 Regional Characteristics of Land Circulation
2.2 Several Forms and Institutional Characteristics of Land Circulation
2.2.1 Land Subcontracting
2.2.2 Land Leasebacks After Subcontracting
2.2.3 Land Shareholding Systems
2.2.4 Land Transfer Trusts
3 Land Circulation Status and Issues in 2007
4 Several Policy Issues in Land Circulation and Scale Management
10 Changes in China’s Rural Land Ownership and Management Methods
1 Status and Changes of Rural Land Ownership
1.1 Change and Elevation in the Ownership of Collective Land
1.2 The Continuous Self-reinforcement of Members’ Rights in Collective Ownership
1.3 Guarantee and Loss of Contractual Management Rights to Land
1.4 The Confirmation and Implementation of Land Rights
2 The Progress of Land Transfer and Scale Management
2.1 Features of Land Transfer
2.2 Changes in the Scale of Farmers’ Operations
2.3 Changes in the Main Entities of Rural Land Management
2.4 Problems Existing in Land Circulation and Scale Management
References
11 The Historic Origins of China’s Land Administration System
1 Historical Evolution of China’s Land Administration System
1.1 Basic Context of the Historical Evolution
1.2 Changes in the Land Administration System Since the Founding of the New China
2 The Main Features of China’s Modern Land Administration System
2.1 A Land Rights System Based on the Socialist Public Ownership of Land, the Coexistence of Two Ownership Systems, and the Separation of Ownership and Use Rights
2.2 Protecting Cultivated Land: The Primary Goal of China’s Land Administration System
2.3 Establishing a Land Administration System with Land Use Regulations as the Core
2.4 Implementing a Mainly Centralized and Uniform Land Administration System
3 Important Lessons from History
3.1 Land Issues Are Related to National Politics and Social Stability
3.2 Dealing with the Distribution of Land Interests Is a Major Concern for Social Stability and Development
3.3 The Land Administration System Plays an Important Supporting Role in Economic Development
3.4 Too Many People, Too Little Land: The Perennial Constraint on China’s Land Administration System and Economic Development
References
Part IV Analysis of the Rural Land Conversion System
12 China’s Dual Land Rights System and Incomplete Land Market
1 The Contribution of Land System Reform to China’s Economic Growth
2 The Formation and Strengthening of China’s Dual Land System Since Reform
2.1 China’s Rural Land Property Rights and Market Development: Toward Real Rights
2.1.1 The Evolution of Rural Land Policy and Law
2.1.2 The Basic Framework and Rights System of the Rural Land System
2.2 The Development of the Market for China’s Rural Land Non-agriculturalization: Toward the Maximization of Local Government Interests
2.2.1 Policy Restrictions on Rural Land Non-agriculturalization
2.2.2 The Basic Framework of the Policy on Rural Land Non-agriculturalization
2.2.3 Evolution of the Market for State-Owned Construction Land
2.2.4 Exploring the Reform of the Land Expropriation System
3 Brief Comments and Conclusions
13 China’s Land Expropriation System: Features and Problems
1 The Formation and Main Features of China’s Land Expropriation System
1.1 The Formation and Evolution of China’s Land Expropriation System
1.2 Characteristics of the Current Land Expropriation System, with Evaluations
2 The Land Expropriation System and Economic Development
2.1 Using Compulsory, Low-cost Land Expropriation to Drive Economic Growth
2.2 Using Low-cost Land to Promote High-speed Industrialization
2.3 Rapid Urbanization Driven by Land Expropriation
3 The Economic and Social Consequences of Land Expropriation
3.1 Endangerment of National Food Security Due to Large-Scale Occupation and Use of High-quality Cultivated Land
3.2 Reduced Governmental Credibility Due to Overstepping Its Role
3.3 Debt Risk for Local Governments and Financial Risk for the Central Bank
3.4 Unfair Distribution of Land Value-Added Income
4 Land Expropriation System Reform: Exploration and Progress
4.1 Many Compensation and Resettlement Models Began in Economically Developed Areas
4.2 Explorations on Improved Compensation Standards
4.3 Formation of a Reform Plan Aimed at Reducing the Scope of Land Expropriation
4.4 A Brief Comment on the Exploration of Land Expropriation System Reform
5 The Basic Thinking on Reforming the Land Expropriation System
5.1 Implementing the Constitution’s Principle of Expropriating Land for the Public Interest
5.2 Changing the Divide in Urban–Rural Governance and Realizing Equal Rights in the Dual Land Ownership Systems
5.3 Basing Property Compensation for Land-Expropriated Farmers on Marketized Price
5.4 Reforming the Land Finance and Government Land Management Structures
5.5 Realizing the Fair and Equitable Distribution of Land Value-Added Income
6 Realistic Choices of Land Expropriation System Reform
6.1 A Scientific Definition of Land Expropriation Power
6.2 Basic Goals of Land Expropriation System Reform at the Present Stage
6.3 Effectively Preventing Abuse of the Land Expropriation Power
6.4 Improving the Compensation and Resettlement System as a Focus of Land Expropriation System Reform
6.5 Exploring the Establishment of a Land Expropriation Dispute Adjudication Mechanism
6.6 Strictly Investigate Responsibility for Illegal Land Expropriation
References
Part V Bidding Farewell to the Land-Driven Development Model
14 Land System Reform and Economic Restructuring
1 The Role of the Land System and Its Changes in Economic Development
1.1 China’s Unique Land System Arrangement and the Government’s Use of Land to Drive Development
1.2 Land Capitalization and Structural Transformation
2 The Stages of Land System Change and Structural Transformation
2.1 1981–1994: Industrialization Launched by the Opening of Land Rights
2.2 1995–2002: Land-Driven Industrialization and Urbanization
2.3 2003–2008: Urbanization Financed by Land
2.4 2008–2016: Using Land as Collateral to Finance Urbanization
3 The Need for Deepening the Reform of the Land System
References
15 Land System Reform and National Economic Growth
1 Land Plays an Important Role in Current Economic Growth
1.1 Land Became a Booster for High-speed Industrialization and Urbanization
1.2 Land-related Income Became an Important Source of Local Government Fiscal Revenue
1.3 Land Became an Important Tool for Leveraging Bank Funds, Urban Infrastructure, Real Estate Investment, and Financing
2 The Severe Challenges Faced by the Current Land System
2.1 The Administrative Allocation and Indicator Management Approach Is Still Used for Construction Land
2.2 Some Local Governments Rely on Land Management and Financing
2.3 Some Local Governments Ignored Farmers’ Land Property Rights
2.4 The Central and Local Governments’ Goals on Land’s Function Are Quite at Odds
3 Suggestions on Deepening the Reform of the Land System
16 Land Capitalization and Land Finance
1 Characteristics and Causes of Land Assignment Revenue Growth
1.1 Characteristics of Land Assignment Revenue Growth
1.1.1 Revenue from Land Assignments Has Changed in Stages
1.1.2 Land Assignment Revenue Has Grown Swiftly in Recent Years
1.1.3 Land Assignment Revenue Levels Show Huge Regional Differences
1.2 Reasons for the Increase in Land Assignment Revenue
1.2.1 The Scale of Land Supply Has Substantially Increased
1.2.2 A Swift Increase in the Proportion of Land Assigned Through Bid Invitation, Auction and Quotation
1.2.3 The Overall Level of Land Prices in the Country Has Risen
2 Costs, Benefits, and Expenditures of Land Assignments
2.1 Costs of Land Assignments
2.1.1 Compensatory Costs
2.1.2 Development Costs
2.2 Land Assignment Income
2.3 Structure of Outlays from Land Assignment Income
3 Land Assignment Revenue and Expenditure Management Policy
3.1 Policy on Obtaining Land Assignment Revenue
3.2 Policies on Managing Land Assignment Revenue and Expenditure
3.3 Policies on the Distribution of Land Assignment Revenue
4 The Main Problems in the Land Assignment System and the Management of Its Revenue and Expenditure
4.1 Local Development Is Overly Dependent on Land Assignments
4.2 Uneven Distribution of Land Assignment Revenue Between Urban and Rural Areas
4.2.1 Cities Still Use Most of It
4.2.2 The Land Assignment Revenue Used for Rural Areas and Agriculture Still Tends to Be Low
4.2.3 The Share of Land Compensation for Farmers from Land Assignment Revenue Has Not Increased, But Has Fallen Instead
4.3 Problems in Land Assignment Revenue and Expenditure
4.3.1 Some Local Land Assignment Revenue Is Being Reduced or Deferred
4.3.2 There Are Defects in the Policy and Implementation of Land Assignment Expenditure
4.3.3 The Growth of Land Revenue Is Unsustainable
5 Policy Recommendations on Improving the Land Assignment Revenue System
5.1 Continuously Increase the Proportion of Land Assignment Revenue Used for Funding Compensation for Land-expropriated Farmers and Maintaining Their Long-term Standard of Living
5.2 Optimize the Expenditure Structure and Guarantee a Proportion of Land Assignment Revenue for People’s Livelihoods and Rural Areas
5.3 Raise the Standards of Paid Use Fees for Newly-added Construction Land, and Apply These Funds to Establish a National Cultivated Land Protection Fund
5.4 Strengthen the Management of Land Assignment Revenue Collection to Ensure That All Receivables Are Collected
5.5 Formulate and Improve the Management Measures for the Use of Relevant Special Funds
5.6 Strengthen Supervision and Inspection, Implement Policy Strictly
17 Bidding Farewell to “Land-driven Development”
1 The Land Sales Model: Frustrated in the East, Spreading in the West and Center
1.1 The Predicament of the Land Sales Model in the Eastern Coastal Region
1.2 The Land Sales Model is Replicating and Spreading in the Central and Western Regions
2 Why the Land Sales Model is Unsustainable
2.1 As the Volatility of Land Assignment Revenue Increases, So Does Instability
2.2 As Compensatory Expenditures Rise, So Does the Cost of Urbanization
2.3 As Local Governments’ Land Revenue Decreases, Their Social Spending Faces a Challenge
2.4 Shrinking Land Assignment Revenue Means Less Funding for Urban Construction
2.5 As Land Mortgage Loans and Illegal Mortgage Financing Increase, So Does Risk to Local Governments
3 Reform Strategies
3.1 Optimizing Land Structure, with Reform of the Land System as the Core
3.2 Promoting State-owned Land Asset Management and Financial System Reform, to Provide Sustainable Funding for Urbanization
18 Thoughts on China’s Land System Reform and How to Promote It
1 The Characteristics and Problems of China’s Land System
1.1 A Land Rights System in which Ownership and Use Rights are Separated on the Basis of Socialist Public Ownership
1.2 A Land Administration that Aims to Protect Arable Land and is Centered on Use Regulation
1.3 A Government-Guided Land Resource Allocation Method that Mainly Follows Market Mechanisms
1.4 A Land Administration System Based on Centralized and Unified Management
2 China’s Current Land System and the Transformation of Development Methods
3 The General Idea and Main Content of Reform
4 Breakthroughs and Priorities in Land System Reform
4.1 Reform Breakthroughs
4.2 Reform Priorities
Index