Abstract
Jean Bourdichon (1457β1521) was an important French painter and manuscript illuminator of the late 15th century. To examine the evolution of Bourdichon's palette and technique over the course of his career, eight illustrations from three manuscripts (of the form known as a book of hours) dating from the early 1480s to 1515 were studied using Raman microspectroscopy in conjunction with Xβray fluorescence spectroscopy. Results reveal that Bourdichon routinely used complex pigment mixtures, employing over 12 pigments and colorants to achieve a variety of hues and subtle tonal effects. Moreover, Bourdichon's palette remained remarkably consistent throughout his career, with only subtle changes in his use of pigments. The pigments identified in Bourdichon's works in this study are typical of those found in 15th century manuscript illumination and include: vermilion, red lead, leadβtin yellow (type I), iron earths, malachite, copper sulfate, ultramarine, azurite, lead white and carbonβbased black along with metallic gold and silver. Additionally, previously unknown as a manuscript pigment, bismuth black (granular elemental bismuth) was found in all of Bourdichon's works in this study. The discovery of bismuth black in Bourdichon's manuscript illuminations from a book of hours dating to the early 1480s may represent one of the earliest documented uses of this material as an artist's pigment. Copyright Β© 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.