Foreword
Preface
Contents
About the Author
Supportive Material
1 Introduction
1.1 Is Wireless a Game changer—Or is It just a Fad?
1.2 What Are the Wireless Technologies?
1.3 Commonality and Differences Between Wired and Wireless Systems
1.4 Introduction to Wiretapping—Why is Wireless Tapping not Practical
1.5 Why Are Wireless Devices in Widespread Use?
1.6 Pictures and Videos
1.7 Internet of Things (IoT)
1.8 Introduction to the Culture of Wireless—Tesla’s Vision
1.9 Conclusion
References
2 Background to Wireless
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Radio Wave Propagation—Basics
2.2.1 Free Space Path Loss
2.2.2 How Can we Perceive Radio Waves?
2.2.3 Measuring Radio Waves—Imagine What They Would Look Like
2.2.4 Reflection of Radio Waves—“Ionosphere” Reflector in the Sky
2.3 Antennas—How and Why Do Radio Waves Propagate
2.4 Brief Overview of Bygone Wireless Technologies (AM, FM, PM)
2.4.1 Digital Audio Broadcast—Challenges FM
2.5 Modern Wireless Systems—Advantages of Digital
2.6 FDM and TDM—Concepts of Duplex and Simplex
2.6.1 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM)—Important Digital Modulation
2.7 Birth of Digital Signal Processing—Its Exponential Rise
2.8 Rise of Digital Modulation Towards Broadband Wireless
2.9 Digital Modulation Example—QAM
2.9.1 Advantages of QAM
2.10 Conclusion
References
3 Wireless Systems—Technologies
3.1 Wireless System Types—Cellular, Microwave, Satellite, WLAN, Broadcast
3.1.1 Cellular System
3.1.2 Microwave System
3.1.3 Satellite System
3.1.4 Wireless LAN (WLAN)
3.1.5 Broadcast Systems
3.2 Wireless and Mobility—Complexity Due to Mobility
3.2.1 Doppler Shift
3.2.2 Channel Fading
3.2.3 Mitigation Techniques
3.3 Error Correcting Codes and Forward Error Correction
3.3.1 Forward Error Correction (FEC)
3.3.2 Linear Block Codes
3.3.3 Convolution Codes
3.3.4 FEC and Coding for Satellite and Intergalactic Systems
3.4 Fixed Wireless—Advantages of Broadband at Destination
3.5 Short Distance Technologies—RFID, UWB, Bluetooth, WiFi (WLAN), Zigbee
3.6 Near-Field Communication (NFC)—Tap and Go
3.7 Fixed Wireless Access to the Internet, 4G Modem—Early 5G Concepts
3.8 Conclusion
References
4 Backhaul Network
4.1 Function of the Backhaul Network
4.2 Changes to Backhaul with Each Generation of Cellular
4.3 Progress of Technology in Backhaul
4.4 Network Interfaces and Protocols
4.5 Application Layer Protocol
4.6 Ethernet Packets and Protocols
4.7 Backhaul and Fronthaul—Differences
4.8 Conclusion
References
5 Wireless Standards and National Licenses
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Wireless Standards—3GPP, IEEE, Bluetooth, and Others
5.2.1 3GPP (Third-Generation Partnership Project)—The Mobile Broadband Standard
5.2.1.1 RAN (Radio Access Networks)
5.2.1.2 Services and System Aspects (SA)
5.2.1.3 Core Network and Terminals (CT)
5.2.1.4 The 5G—NR Initiative
5.2.2 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) Standards
5.2.3 The IEEE 802.11 Standard
5.2.4 Personal Area Networks IEEE 802.15 Standards
5.2.5 Bluetooth Standard
5.2.6 UWB or Ultra-Wide Band
5.2.7 ZigBee or Low-Throughput Data Standard
5.2.8 MESH Network Standard
5.2.9 RF Radiation—Protection Against Adverse Health Effect in Humans
5.3 Allocation of Frequency Bands, Spectrum Licenses
5.3.1 Need for License
5.4 Methods to Control Interference—Regulation
5.5 Standards Evolution to Accommodate New Technologies
5.6 Separation of Commercial and Public Safety Users
5.7 Internet-of-Things (IoT) and Proliferation of Wireless
5.8 Conclusion
References
6 Security and Personal Devices
6.1 A Closer Look at Cybersecurity
6.1.1 Cellular Security
6.1.2 Cellular Authentication: Continuous Process
6.1.3 Understanding Unique ID (Identifiers) in LTE
6.1.4 Security Algorithms and Keys in 3G and 4G
6.1.5 LTE Security Schemes
6.1.6 Why Such an Elaborate Security Scheme?
6.2 Differences Between WiFi Security and Cellular Security
6.2.1 Security of Bluetooth and Other Proximity Wireless
6.2.2 Zigbee Security Schemes
6.3 Why is Cellular is Less Prone to Attacks
6.4 Basis of Codes and Mathematics (Cryptography)
6.4.1 Cryptography: Key to Network Security
6.4.2 Cipher Algorithms for Encryption
6.4.3 Combining Encryption and Error Correction
6.4.4 Geometry and Trigonometry: RF Security by Physical Layout
6.5 Process of Evolving Security Algorithms in 3GPP: Each Generation
6.6 Applications in Medical, Financial, and Other Sensitive Areas
6.7 Physical Security and Access
6.7.1 The World Wide Web
6.7.2 Email: Will It Remain Viable?
6.7.3 Block Chain
6.8 Conclusion
References
7 Public Policy, Health, and Safety
7.1 Health Concerns: Public Perception
7.2 IEEE Standards of Radiation Safety
7.3 National Bodies (FCC and Others) and Regulations
7.3.1 Specific Absorption Rate (SAR)
7.3.2 Beneficial Uses of RF Energy
7.3.3 Did Wireless Proximity to the Public Increase Health Concerns?
7.3.4 Digital Unplug: Away from RF
7.4 Verification and Imposition of Safety Regulations
7.4.1 Regulatory Bodies
7.4.2 Human Exposure to RF EM Fields: Regulation
7.4.3 Verification and Imposition of Regulatory Limits
7.4.4 Measurement Methods and Technology Growth
7.4.5 EMI/EMC Compliance
7.5 Conclusions
References
8 Engineering Economics
8.1 Cost of Design and Deployment: Wired Versus Wireless
8.1.1 Fixed Links Between Two Locations
8.1.2 Services to Premises: Residential/Business
8.2 Economics of Wireless Growth: One Generation/Decade
8.2.1 Growth of Unlicensed Spectrum
8.2.2 Cost of License and Fee Structure
8.3 Cost of Using Green Energy Devices to Deploy Cellular
8.3.1 Traffic Models Based on Area
8.3.2 Traffic Demand Based on Terminal Types
8.4 Cellular Handsets: Cost of Recycle and Reuse
8.5 Satellite Launch, Lifespan, and Usage Patterns
8.5.1 Cost of Space Components and Building Space Craft
8.6 Conclusion
References
9 Wireless Technology and Impact on Society
9.1 The Wireless Generation and Wearables
9.1.1 Wireless Home Phone Base Station and PBX
9.2 Introduction to Wireless Tracking During Emergency
9.3 Location-Based Services and Public Perception
9.4 Virtual Reality and Its Use in Media
9.5 Communication with Outer Space: Possible Only with Wireless
9.6 Conclusion
References
10 Tracking, Monitoring, and Proximity Usage
10.1 Remote Monitoring and Control: Home, Garage Door, and Others
10.2 Monitoring Animals in the Wild, Their Care
10.2.1 Standard VHF Collar
10.2.2 VHF Collar with Snare Protection (Antenna External)
10.2.3 Satellite Telemetry Tracking
10.2.4 GPS Tracking Collars
10.2.5 Tracking Methods and Improvement in Transmitters
10.3 Surgery and Medical Procedures: From a Distance
10.3.1 Implanting Devices in the Human Body
10.4 Use of Smartphone as the Only Communication Device
10.4.1 TV Screen Getting Gradually Replaced by the Cell Phone
10.4.2 Cell Phone as Identity
10.4.3 Cell Phone as Your Car Key
10.4.4 Cell Phone for Keyless Entry into Buildings
10.4.5 Cell Phone Versus Laptop and Desktop
10.4.6 Cell Phone: Secure Mobile Wallet
10.4.7 Cell Phone: Replacing Digital Telephone
10.5 Sensors and Their Integration into Wireless: Bluetooth Extensions
10.6 Conclusion
References
11 Cellular Systems
11.1 Fundamentals of Mobility: Major Considerations
11.1.1 Coverage Versus Capacity Planning
11.1.2 Inception of Cellular Service
11.1.3 First-Generation Cellular
11.2 Second and Third Generations: TDMA and CDMA (2G, 3G)
11.2.1 TDMA Concept
11.2.2 CDMA Concept
11.2.3 Comparison of TDMA and CDMA
11.2.4 Hard Handoff (TDMA)
11.2.5 Soft/Softer Handoff (CDMA)
11.2.5.1 Handling Interference
11.2.6 Rake Receivers: CDMA
11.2.6.1 Reselection of Control Channel
11.2.6.2 Security Schemes: By Each Generation
11.3 Cellular Standards Body: 3GPP and Evolution of Core Network
11.3.1 Moving to 4G: Evolved Packet Core (EPC)
11.3.2 Multimedia Services and Role of IMS
11.3.3 Service-Based Architecture of 5G
11.4 LTE: The First Global 4G Standard
11.5 Use of OFDM: Details of Layers 1 and 2
11.5.1 Frequency and Bandwidth
11.5.2 Modulation Techniques
11.5.3 MIMO: Multi-Input Multi Output (MIMO)
11.5.4 Data Rate/Throughput
11.5.5 TDD-LTE
11.6 Work in Progress Towards 5G
11.7 Advantages and Concerns About Millimeter Wave
11.8 Conclusion
References
12 Wireless LAN (Local Area Network)
12.1 The IEEE 802.11 WiFi Standards
12.1.1 Some of Other IEEE 802.1x Standards
12.1.2 Bluetooth Technology
12.1.3 IEEE 802.15 PAN (Personal Area Network) Standards
12.1.4 Ultra-Wide Band (UWB)
12.1.5 IEEE 802.16 WiMax
12.1.6 IEEE 802.20 Mobile Broadband Wireless Access
12.1.7 IEEE 802.21 Media-Independent Handover (MIH) Service
12.1.8 IEEE 802.22 Wireless Regional Area Network (White Space)
12.1.9 IEEE 802.24 Smart Grid Technology
12.2 Widespread Use of WiFi and Its Advantages
12.3 Why is WLAN the Technology at Your Destination?
12.4 Security Challenges and Improvements
12.5 Licensed and Unlicensed Bands Used by WiFi: A Comparison
12.6 Point-To-Multipoint Systems (PTMP): Methods to Implement Security
12.7 Conclusion
References
13 Satellite Communication
13.1 Satellites and Orbits: Considerations
13.1.1 Types of Orbits: And Global Resource
13.1.2 Low Earth Orbit
13.1.3 Medium Earth Orbit
13.1.3.1 GPS/Navigation Satellite Constellation
13.1.3.2 Remote Sensing Satellite Constellations
13.1.3.3 Molniya and Tundra Satellite Constellation
13.1.4 Geostationary Orbit
13.2 Global Markets and Allocations
13.3 Uplink and Downlink Considerations
13.3.1 Satellite Earth Stations
13.3.2 Transponders on Satellites: Noise Considerations
13.3.3 VSAT: Terminals
13.3.4 VSAT Satellite Users: Portable, Vehicle Borne, and Ship Borne
13.4 Applications: Broadcast, Telecom, Navigation
13.4.1 Satellites for Broadcast
13.4.2 Satellites for Navigation
13.4.3 Satellites for Remote Sensing: Accuracy
13.4.4 Satellites for Telecommunication in Various Regions
13.5 Telemetry, Telecommand, and Tracking
13.6 Satellite Support to Maritime and Aeronautical Operations
13.7 Remote Sensing Drones and Their Growth
13.8 Conclusion
References
14 Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Links
14.1 Basic Considerations: Throughput and Reliability
14.2 Link Design: Choice of Equipment
14.2.1 Link Design: Frequency and Losses
14.2.2 Link Design: Polarization, Cable/Waveguide
14.2.3 Cross-Polarization and XPD
14.2.4 Fresnel Zone and Other Factors
14.2.5 Earth’s Curvature and K-Factor
14.2.6 Fading and Variation with Regions
14.2.7 Adaptive Modulation Coding: Auto Transmit Power Control
14.3 Regulations to Promote Microwave Links
14.3.1 Wind Load: Regulation
14.3.2 Grid Antennas: Reduce Wind Load
14.3.3 Radome: To Shield the Antenna
14.4 Emergency Deployments: Establishing Backhaul Links
14.5 Millimeter-Wave Link as an Alternative to Fiber
14.5.1 The 60 GHz Unlicensed Band
14.5.2 The 70/80/90 GHz Licensed Band
14.6 The Remote End Tower: Design and Deployment
14.6.1 Monitoring the Remote Tower
14.7 Conclusion
References
15 Vehicular Technology
15.1 Land Mobile Radio: Public Safety (Rail, Bus)
15.2 Key Digital LMR Systems
15.2.1 TETRA (Terrestrial Trunk Radio) and P25 (Project 25)
15.2.2 The APCO P25 System
15.2.3 4G LTE Plans for P25 and TETRA
15.3 Safety in Vehicles: DSRC and LAN in Vehicle
15.4 Vehicle to Vehicle, Vehicle to Way-Side Communications
15.5 Positive Train Control and CBTC
15.5.1 PTC: Positive Train Control
15.5.2 Communication-Based Train Control (CBTC)
15.6 Driverless Vehicles: Infrastructure Choices
15.6.1 Cellular Infrastructure Choice C-V2X
15.6.2 DSRC Network Choice V2X
15.6.3 Autonomous Vehicles for Farming, Mining, and Construction
15.7 Conclusion
References
16 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
16.1 Current Deployments in the Process Control Industry
16.2 The Concepts of IoT in 4G and Growth in Monitoring
16.3 Devices, Deployments, and Use of Narrow Band
16.4 Network Monitoring System (NMS)
16.5 Standards of ZigBee and 802.11af
16.6 IoT and Impact on Safety and Public View
16.6.1 Public Health: Device Proximity
16.6.2 Sensor Malfunction Leading to Concerns
16.7 Conclusion
References
17 Antennas, Transmission Lines, Matching Networks
17.1 Electro-Magnetics and Fields
17.1.1 Maxwell’s Equations
17.1.2 Types of Transmission Line: Coaxial or Waveguide
17.1.3 Radiating Cable: Transmission Line Designed to Be Lossy
17.1.4 The Matching Network
17.1.5 Antenna: How It Connects to the Transmission Line
17.2 Types of Antenna: Impact of MMIC (Reflector Antennas)
17.2.1 Wire and Aperture Antennas
17.2.2 Long Wire Antenna
17.2.3 Traveling Wave Antennas
17.2.3.1 Helical Wire Antenna
17.2.4 Impact of MMIC
17.2.5 Stripline and 3D Printed Antennas
17.2.6 Electrically Small Antennas
17.3 The Smart Phone and Hidden Antenna
17.4 EMI/EMC Issues With Embedded Devices
17.5 Opportunities for Millimeter-Wave Antennas
17.6 Conclusions
References
18 RADAR for a Better Society
18.1 A Brief Overview of RADAR
18.1.1 The Radar Range Equation
18.1.2 Radar Transponder Beacon
18.1.3 Ship Borne Radar Systems
18.1.4 Satellite-Based Radar Systems
18.1.5 Concept of MIMO in SAR
18.2 Doppler Radar Accuracy and Safety
18.3 RADAR on Aircraft Versus in Vehicles on Road—Comparison
18.3.1 SAE International’s Levels of Driving Automation for On-Road Vehicle
18.4 Use of Millimeter Waves in Vehicles
18.4.1 FM Continuous Wave (FMCW)
18.4.2 Use of DSP (Digital Signal Processors) in FMCW
18.5 Integrating Radar with Wayside Network
18.5.1 Human Driver to Autonomous Vehicle—Motivation
18.5.2 Sensors—Comparative Strengths
18.5.3 Use of URLLC Standard for Network Connection
18.6 Conclusion
References
19 Radio Frequency Measurements
19.1 Frequency and Time
19.1.1 Secondary Standards of Time/Frequency
19.1.2 Crystal Oscillator—The Reference
19.1.3 MEMS—Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (Oscillators, Timers)
19.2 RF Power
19.2.1 Primary Standard—RF Power
19.2.2 Secondary Standards of RF Power
19.2.3 Working Standard of RF Power
19.2.3.1 Load Matching
19.3 Impedance
19.3.1 Definitions and Overview—Impedance and Admittance
19.3.2 Impedance Measurement Methods
19.3.3 RF I-V Method
19.3.4 Network Analysis Method
19.4 Noise and Interference
19.4.1 Noise and Its Source—Electrical Power
19.4.1.1 Methods to Consider Noise During Design
19.4.2 Noise in High-Speed Data Converters
19.5 Transmitter and Receiver Measurements
19.5.1 Transmitter Measurements
19.5.2 Cellular Receiver Measurements
19.6 Field Measurements at the Site
19.6.1 Cell Site Measurements
19.6.2 Generic Receiver Measurements
19.6.3 Passive Inter-Modulation (PIM) Measurements
19.7 RF Components—Their Functions
19.7.1 Lightning Arrestor (Surge Arrester)
19.7.2 Directional Couplers
19.7.3 Duplexer, Diplexer, and Splitter
19.7.4 Balun Transformers
19.7.5 Circulators/Isolators
19.7.6 Attenuators
19.8 Conclusion
References