Cover
Half-title
Series-title
Title
Copyright
Contents
Authors and Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgements
Outline and Roadmap
CHAPTER 1 Overview
1.1 Subsurface Imaging: Scope and Applications
1.2 Challenges of Subsurface Imaging
A. Limited Resolution
Localization
Multiple Scattering
B. Limited Penetration and Weak Contrast
1.3 Localized and Tomographic Imaging
A. Localized Imaging
B. Tomographic Imaging
1.4 Mathematics of Subsurface Imaging
A. Field Equations: Partial Differential Equations
B. Imaging Equations: Linear Integral Relations
C. Digital Imaging Equations: Matrix Algebra
D. Inversion
1.5 Dynamic, Multispectral, Multisensor, and Multiwave Imaging
Review Exercise
CHAPTER 2 Physical Models
2.1 Waves: Electromagnetic and Acoustic
A. Waves
Wave Equation
Harmonic Waves
Helmholtz Equation
Plane Waves
Spherical Waves
Gaussian Beams
Damped Waves
Wave Generation
Wave Diffraction
B. Electromagnetic Waves
Wave Propagation in a Dielectric Medium
Transverse Electromagnetic Plane Waves
Polarization
Dipole Waves
Photons
Electrons
C. Acoustic Waves
2.2 Wave Interaction I
A. Absorption
Absorption of Electromagnetic Waves in Lossy Dielectric Media
Absorption of Optical Waves
Absorption of X-Rays
Absorption of -Rays
Absorption of Acoustic Waves
Dispersion
B. Reflection and Refraction
Reflection of Electromagnetic Waves
Reflection of Optical Waves
Reflection of Acoustic Waves
Reflection and Refraction of Oblique Waves
Multilayer Transmission and Reflection
Anti-Reflection Impedance-Matching Layers
Nonplanar Refractive Surfaces
C. Scattering
Rayleigh Scattering
Mie Scattering
Dynamic Scattering
D. Diffusion
Reflection and Transmission in a Scattering Medium
Diffusion Model
2.3 Wave Interaction II
A. Inelastic Scattering
Photoluminescence and Fluorescence
Raman Scattering
X-Ray, gamma-Ray, and Electron Scattering
B. Nonlinear Scattering
Harmonic Generation
Multiphoton Luminescence and Fluorescence
Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Spectroscopy (CARS)
C. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
D. Fields and Waves in Inhomogeneous Media
2.4 Contrast Agents
A. Nontargeted and Targeted Contrast Agents
B. Molecular Contrast Agents
Molecular Imaging of Biomarkers
2.5 Sources and Detectors
A. General Characteristics of Sources and Detectors
Sources
Detectors
B. Radiowave Transmitters and Receivers
C. Optical Sources and Detectors
Optical Sources
Optical Detectors
D. X-Ray and gamma-Ray Sources and Detectors
E. Acoustic Sources and Detectors
F. Phased-Array Sources and Detectors null
Further Reading
Problems
CHAPTER 3 Localized Imaging
3.1 Two-Dimensional Imaging
A. Gazing, Scanning, and Near-Field Imaging
Gazing Systems
Scanning Systems
B. Mathematical Models of Image Formation
1. Geometric Transformations
2. Contrast Modification and Nonuniform Modulation
3. Linear Blur
C. Coherent Imaging Systems
Diffraction-Limited Coherent Imaging
Effect of Defocusing and Lens Aberration
D. Incoherent Imaging Systems: Microscopy
Coherent versus Incoherent Imaging
Diffraction-Limited Incoherent Imaging
Effect of Defocusing and Lens Aberration
Microscopy
E. Scanning Systems: Fluorescence Scanning Microscopy
F. Imaging with Resolution Exceeding the Diffraction Limit
Imaging with Structured Illumination
Near- Field Imaging
G. Single-Molecule Imaging: STORM and PALM
H. Imaging of Phase Objects: PCM and DIC Microscopy
Low- Pass Filter: Defocused Phase Imaging
Differential Filter: Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) Microscopy
Phase Filter: Phase Contrast Microscopy
Interferometric Phase Imaging
3.2 Three-Dimensional Imaging
A. Linearization
Linearized Imaging of a Nonhomogeneous Medium
B. Spatial Localization: Confocal Microscopy, Multiphoton Fluorescent Microscopy
Lateral Gazing and Axial Scanning
Confocal Scanning
Two- Photon Fluorescence LSCM
Stimulated Emission Depletion (STED) Fluorescence Scanning Microscopy
C. Temporal Localization: Radar, Sonar, and Lidar
Radiowave Imaging: Radar
Ultrasonic Imaging: Sonar and Medical Diagnostic Ultrasound
Optical Imaging: Lidar
Reflection Seismology
D. Interferometric Localization: Optical Reflectometry
Interferometric Localization: (i) Coherent Harmonic Wave
Interferometric Localization: (ii) Coherent Pulsed Wave
Interferometric Localization: (iii) Low-Coherence Wave
Optical Coherence “Tomography” (OCT)
3.3 Image Restoration
A. Systems with No Spatial Spread
B. Linear Systems with Spatial Blur: Deblurring
Further Reading
Problems
CHAPTER 4 Tomographic Imaging
4.1 Ray Tomography
Ray Transmission as a Projection
Projection Equation for 2D Objects
A. Radon Transform and Projection–Slice Theorem
Radon Transform
Projection–Slice Theorem
Inversion by Use of the Projection–Slice Theorem
B. Inversion by Filtered Backprojection
Backprojection
Filtered Backprojection
C. Computed Axial Tomography (CT)
D. Emission Tomography (SPECT and PET)
Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT)
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
4.2 Range Tomography
A. Configurations and Reconstruction
B. Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR)
C. Photoacoustic Tomography (PAT)
4.3 Wave Tomography
A. Fourier Theory of Wave Tomography
Diffraction–Slice Theorem
Diffraction from a Periodic Structure. Crystallography.
Wave Tomography for Objects with Cylindrical Symmetry
B. Ultrasonic and Optical Diffraction Tomography (UDT and ODT)
4.4 Spectral Tomography
A. Fourier-Transform Tomography
B. Spectral-Domain Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)
Swept-Frequency OCT
Low-Coherence Optical Reflectometry: Spectral Domain
C. Frequency-Encoded Tomography
D. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Frequency-Encoded Sectioning
Frequency-Encoded Tomography
Combined Frequency-Encoded Sectioning and Tomography
4.5 Generalized Tomography
A. Diffuse Optical Tomography (DOT)
B. Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT)
Further Reading
Problems
CHAPTER 5 Digital Image Processing
5.1 Discrete and Matrix Models
A. Single-View Imaging
Discrete Models
Matrix Models
B. Multiview Imaging
C. Applications
Ray Tomography
Wave Tomography
5.2 The Inverse Problem
Noise
Matrix Dimensions and Rank.
A. Ill-Posedness
Existence
Uniqueness
Stability
B. Singular-Value Decomposition
Inversion of a Full-Rank Square Matrix: Stability
Full-Rank Overdetermined System: Existence
Full-Rank Underdetermined System: Uniqueness
Inversion of a Square Reduced-Rank Matrix: Ill-Posedness
5.3 Pseudo-Inverse
A. Full-Rank Overdetermined Inverse Problem
B. Full-Rank Underdetermined Inverse Problems
C. Reduced Rank Problems
D. Examples and Applications
5.4 Regularization
A. Truncated Singular-Value Decomposition
B. Spectral Filtering
C. Tikhonov Inversion
D. Examples and Applications
5.5 Iterative Inversion
A. Iterative Methods
Gradient Descent
Conjugate Gradient Method
B. Regularization
Further Reading
Problems
CHAPTER 6 Spectral Imaging
6.1 Spectral Imaging
A. The Spectral Image
B. Spectral Imaging
C. Spectral Image Acquisition
Gazing System: Filter Method
Scanning System: Whiskbroom Method
Hybrid System: Pushbroom Method
Computed-Tomography Spectral Imaging
6.2 Models of Spectral Imaging
A. Models of Spectroscopy
Multisensor Configuration
Multiprobe Configuration
Special Case: Measurement of a Linearly Mixed Spectrum
B. Models of Spectral Imaging
Multisensor Configuration
Multiprobe Configuration
C. Digital Models of Spectral Imaging
6.3 Information Extraction
A. Unmixing of Linearly Mixed Spectra
Abundance Estimation
B. Classification
Point-by-Point Spectral Classification
Spatial–Spectral Classification
6.4 Applications of Spectral Subsurface Imaging
A. Spectral Imaging of Skin
Optics of Human Skin
Information Extraction
Skin Imaging Systems
B. Spectral Imaging of Underwater Benthic Habitat
Remote-Sensing Model of Underwater Imaging
Radiative Transfer in Water
Model-Based Information Extraction
Further Reading
Problems
CHAPTER 7 Mosaicing, Change Detection, and Multisensor Imaging
7.1 Introduction
A. Mosaicing
Constructing Mosaics
B. Change Detection
C. Multisensor Imaging
D. Image Registration
(i) Establishing the Correspondences
(ii) Estimating the Geometric Transformation
(iii) Realigning Images
7.2 Image Registration Algorithms
A. Feature-Based Registration
Feature Selection
Features with Descriptors
Feature-Based Registration Algorithm
B. Intensity-Based Registration
C. Mutual-Information-Based Registration
7.3 Mosaicing
A. Signal Correction
B. Signal Combining
C. Large-Scale Mosaicing
7.4 Change Detection
A. Signal Correction
B. Decision Rule and Post Processing
Decision Rule
Post-Processing
7.5 Multisensor Imaging
Strategies for Using Multisensor Images
Further Reading
Problems
CHAPTER 8 Numerical Simulation
8.1 Overview of Numerical Methods
A. Exact, Approximate, and Numerical Solutions
B. Differential, Integral, and Modal Methods
C. Frequency Domain versus Time Domain
8.2 Differential Methods
A. Finite Difference (FD) Methods
FDFD Electromagnetic Fields
FDTD Electromagnetic Fields
Solving the FD Equations
Boundary Conditions
Simulation of Waves in Dispersive Media
B. Finite Element Method (FEM)
8.3 Integral Methods
A. Equivalence Theorem Formulation of Scattering
B. Method of Moments (MoM)
8.4 Modal Methods
8.5 Comparison, Limitations, and Validation
A. Comparison
B. Limitations
Sampling Points per Feature
Sampling Points per Wavelength
Matrix Size
Stability
C. Validation
8.6 Simulation for Sensing and Imaging
Further Reading
Problems
CHAPTER 9 Design of Subsurface Imaging Systems
9.1 The Design Process
A. Problem Definition
B. Probe Selection
C. Imaging Configuration
D. Forward Models
E. Inversion Method
F. End-to-End System Design and Optimization
Performance Measures
Other Design Alternatives
Simulation and Testing
9.2 Case Study I: Humanitarian Demining
Problem Definition
Probes
Configurations and Data Processing
Forward Modeling
End-to-End System Design and Optimization
9.3 Case Study II: Breast Cancer Detection
Problem Definition
Probes
Configurations
Forward Modeling
Inversion Methods
End-to-End System Optimization
Further Reading
Problems
APPENDIX A: Multi-Dimensional Signals and Systems
A.1 One-Dimensional Signals and Systems
A. One-Dimensional Fourier Transform
Properties of the Fourier Transform
Special Functions
Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)
Sampling
B. One-Dimensional Linear Systems
Linear Shift-Invariant Systems
Transfer Function
Examples
Discrete Linear Systems.
A.2 Two-Dimensional Signals and Systems
A. Two-Dimensional Fourier Transform
Properties
Special Functions
Two-Dimensional Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)
B. Two-Dimensional Linear Systems
Receptive Function
Transfer Function
Two-Dimensional Sampling
A.3 Multi-Dimensional Signals and Systems
Further Reading
APPENDIX B: Linear Algebra
B.1 Linear Vector Spaces
Linear Vector Space and RN and CN
Norms and Inner Products
B.2 Linear Transformations: Matrices
A. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
B. Singular Value Decomposition (SVD)
C. Domain, Range, and Nullspace
APPENDIX C: Detection and Classification
C.1 Detection
Detection Based on a One-Dimensional Signal
Detection Based on a Multi- Dimensional Signal
C.2 Classification
Feature-Based Classification
Decision Rule
Further Reading
APPENDIX D: Software Tools
D.1 MATLAB Image Processing Toolbox
Representation of an Image by a Matrix
Intensity images
Color Images
Conversions
Displaying a color image
Importing Images
Exporting Images
D.2 Field Simulation Software
Ultrasonic Simulation: Field II
D.3 Hyperspectral Image Analysis Toolbox
D.4 Image Registration Software
MATLAB Registration Tools
NLM Insight Toolkit (ITK)
Rensselaer Generalized Registration Library (RGRL)
Index
Subject index
A
A-scan, 86
Absorbance, 28
Absorbing boundary conditions (ABCs), 334
Absorption, 37â•“42
--- ?-ray, 41
acoustic waves, 41
--- coefficient, 37
--- electromagnetic waves, 37
--- optical waves, 38
--- two-photon, 61
, 113
--- X-ray, 40
Abundance estimation, 250
Acoustic spectrum, 35
Acoustic waves, 35
â•“36, 374
absorption, 41
--- reflection, 44
--- refraction, 46
--- sources and detectors, 79
Acousto-optic tomography, 19
Affine transformation, 90
Airyâ•™s formulas, 46
Albedo, 54
, 260
Alpha parameter ?, 3
, 4
, 364
Antenna, 74
, 118
, 120
, 157
, 158
, 162
, 367
, 377
Anti-reflection layer, 46
Attenuation coefficient, 28
B
B-scan, 86
Backprojection, 147
, 158
Backpropagation, 172
Backscattering, 51
, 53
Beerâ•“Lambert law, 40
Beta parameter ?, 4
, 363
Biomarkers, 72
Bloch equation, 63
Blur, linear, 91â•“93
Born approximation, 8
, 50
, 110
, 180
, 351
Bragg diffraction, 170
Breast cancer detection, 152
, 378â•“385
C
C-scan, 86
Change detection, 281
â•“282, 311â•“314
Chemical sensing, 59
, 61
, 364
, 374
Classification, 254
, 356
, 420
--- feature-based, 420
Clutter, 7
, 362
, 363
, 365
, 370
â•“372, 374â•“377,
--- 379
, 383
Coherence function, 127
Coherence length, 127
Coherence time, 127
Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (CARS),
--- 61
Computed tomography (CT), 152
â•“153, 364
, 365
Confocal scanning, 112
Contrast, 9
, 363
Contrast agents, 68
--- targeted, 70
Contrast modification, 91
Convolution, 14
, 390
, 391
, 396
, 398
Corner points, 290
Correlation, 301
, 390
, 396
Cross-well radar (CWR), 12
, 212
Crystallography, 170
D
D-bar method, 185
, 186
Deblurring, 132
, 229
Debye model, 38
, 335
Decision rule, 313
, 421
--- Bayesian, 417
--- k nearest neighbor, 419
, 422
--- maximum a posteriori probability (MAP),
--- 417
--- maximum likelihood (ML), 415
--- minimum angle assignment (MAA), 421
--- minimum distance assignment (MDA),
--- 415
, 421
--- threshold, 415
Deconvolution, 132
, 229
Delta function, 390
Demining, 372â•“377
Dermatoscope, 257
Dermoscopy, 257
, 262
Detection, 356
, 414
--- breast cancer, 378â•“385
--- landmines, 372â•“377
Diffraction, 29
Diffraction tomography, 165
Diffraction-limited imaging, 93
, 95
Diffuse optical tomography (DOT), 12
, 67
, 181,
--- 252
, 364
, 365
, 382
, 383
Diffusion, 52
--- coefficient, 56
--- equation, 56
, 67
--- Monte Carlo, 56
Digital breast tomosynthesis (DBT), 152
, 381,
--- 383
--- 433
--- 434 INDEX
Directive gain, antenna, 75
Discrete Fourier transform (DFT)
--- one-dimensional, 391
--- two-dimensional, 397
Discretization, 192
â•“195, 197
, 247
, 391
, 394
, 397,
--- 401
Dispersion, 42
, 335
Doppler
--- radar, 17
, 51
--- shift, 51
--- sonar, 51
Dynamic imaging, 17
Dynamic scattering, 51
E
Elastic fields, 381
Elastic waves, 37
Elastography, 384
Electrical impedance tomography (EIT), 12
, 184,
--- 364
, 382
, 384
Electromagnetic induction (EMI), 364
, 372
, 376,
--- 377
Electromagnetic spectrum, 31
Electromagnetic waves, 31â•“34
--- absorption, 37
--- reflection, 43
--- transmitters and receivers, 74
Emission tomography, 153
Endmembers, 234
Equivalence theorem, 29
, 341
Ewald sphere, 167
--- limiting, 168
Extinction coefficient, 28
F
Feathering, 308
Fiducial points, 290
Filtered backprojection, 147
Filtered backpropagation, 172
Finite difference, 329
Finite element methods (FEM), 338â•“340
Finite-difference frequency-domain (FDFD),
--- 331
Finite-difference time-domain (FDTD), 333
Fisherâ•™s linear discriminant, 420
Fluence, 56
Fluorescence, 58
--- multiphoton, 61
, 113
Fluorescence lifetime imaging, 58
Fluorescence scanning microscopy, 58
, 97
, 364,
--- 365
Fluorophore, 61
FMCW radar, 120
Fourier diffraction theorem, 168
Fourier transform
--- Discrete (DFT), 391
, 397
--- multidimensional, 402
--- one-dimensional, 388
--- table of selected functions, 390
--- two-dimensional, 394
Fourier-transform tomography, 173
Functional imaging, 384
Functional MRI, 179
Fusion, 376
G
Gamma-ray (?-ray), 31
, 373
--- absorption, 41
--- imaging, 373
--- sources and detectors, 79
Gaussian beam, 26
Gaussian function, 390
Geometric transformation, 89
, 90
--- affine, 90
--- Euclidean, 90
--- quadratic, 90
--- rotation, 89
--- scaling, 89
--- similarity, 90
--- translation, 89
Greenâ•™s function, 393
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR), 8
, 119
, 162,
--- 364
, 374
, 376
, 377
Ground-penetrating sonar (GPS), 375
, 377
H
Half-value thickness, 28
Harmonic generation, 60
Helmholtz equation, 24
, 57
, 66
, 331
Homomorphic filter, 312
Huygenâ•™s principle, 29
Hyperspectral imaging, 235, see spectral imaging
Hypotheses testing, 414
I
Ill-posedness, 133
, 201
Image restoration, 131â•“134
Imaging
--- ?-ray, 373
--- brain, 278
--- breast, 378â•“385
--- coherent, 93â•“94
--- diffraction-limited, 93
, 95
--- dynamic, 17
--- functional, 384
--- gazing, 87
incoherent, 95â•“97
interferometric, 106
, 124
â•“131, 173
--- landmines, 372â•“377
--- magnetic resonance, 178
, 364
, 365
, 382
--- matrix, 15
--- medical, 121
--- molecular, 236
--- multimodal, see multisensor imaging
--- multisensor, 17
, 283
â•“285, 314
â•“319, 371
--- multispectral, 17
--- multiwave, 18
--- near-field, 101
--- optical, 122
--- PALM, 102
--- phase objects, 103
--- polarization-sensitive, 19
--- radiowave, 118
INDEX 435
--- retina, 278
--- retinal, 282
--- scanning, 6
, 88
--- seismic, 123
, 159
, 364
--- single-molecule, 102
--- STORM, 102
--- structural, 384
--- three-dimensional, 108â•“131
--- time-of-flight, 10
, 116
â•“124, 157
--- two-dimensional, 87â•“107
--- ultrasonic, 121
, 364
, 365
, 382
--- X-ray, 152
, 198
, 211
, 219
, 253
, 373
Imaging equation, 14
--- discrete, 194
--- matrix, 196
Imaging matrix, 196
â•“199, 219
, 227
, 228
Impedance, 33
Impulse response function, see Point spread
--- function (PSF)
Infrared, 31
, 373
Inhomogeneous media, 65
Inversion, 15
, 200
â•“226, 368
, 383
--- existence, 201
ill-posedness, 201
iterative, 357
--- pseudo-inverse, 207
--- ray tomography, 229
, 230
--- regularization, 214â•“226
--- Tikhonov, 217
--- uniqueness, 202
--- wave tomography, 229
, 230
K
Kirchhoff migration, 159
Kubelkaâ•“Munk model, 54
L
Laplaceâ•™s equation, 67
, 184
, 185
Laser, 76
Laser Doppler velocimetry, 51
Laser Doppler vibrometry (LDV), 375
Lexicographic ordering, 226
Lidar, 122
Light-emitting diode (LED), 76
Linear algebra, 404â•“413
Linear discriminant analysis (LDA), 419
Linear system
--- discrete, 394
, 401
--- one-dimensional, 392
--- transfer function, 393
, 400
--- two-dimensional, 398
Linear transformations, 408â•“413
Linear vector spaces, 405â•“408
Linearization, 14
, 108
Localization, 5
, 102
--- interferometric, 124
--- spatial, 111
--- temporal, 116
Loweâ•™s keypoints, 292
M
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 63
, 178,
--- 364
, 365
, 382
--- functional, 179
Matrix
--- algebra, 408â•“413
--- dimensions, 200
--- domain, 412
--- eigenvectors, 410
--- full-rank, 200
--- inverse, 409
models, 196
, 247
--- nullspace, 412
--- overdetermined, 200
--- range, 412
--- rank, 200
, 409
--- reduced-, 200
--- singular-value decomposition, 203
, 410
--- transpose, 408
--- underdetermined, 200
Maxwellâ•™s equations, 31
, 32
, 66
, 331
Mean free path, 53
Method of moments (MoM), 328
, 346
, 350
Microscopy, 97
--- bright-field, 97
--- confocal scanning, 112
, 257
--- dark-field, 97
--- differential interference contrast (DIC), 104
--- fluorescence scanning, 97
--- laser scanning confocal (LSCM), 112
--- PALM, 102
--- phase contrast, 105
--- spectral, 235
--- STED, 115
--- STORM, 102
--- two-photon, 61
, 113
--- wide-field, 97
Microwaves, 31
, 373
Mie scattering, 49
Millimeter waves, 31
, 373
Millimeter-wave radar, 119
Molecular imaging, 69
, 70
, 72
, 236
Monte Carlo modeling, 56
Mosaicing, 277
â•“281, 306â•“310
--- in microscopy, 278
--- large-scale, 308
Multiflux model, 56
Multimodal imaging, see Multisensor imaging
Multiphoton fluorescence, 61
Multiple scattering, 7
, 110
, 266
Multisensor imaging, 17
, 283
â•“285, 314
â•“319, 371
Multisensor screening, 384
Multispectral imaging, 17
, 235, see spectral
--- imaging
Multiview tomography, see Tomography
Multiwave imaging, 18
N
Near-field imaging, 101
Nonlinear absorption, 61
Nonlinear acoustics, 60
, 376
Nonlinear scattering, 60
Nuclear magnetic resonance, 63
--- 436 INDEX
Nuclear medicine, 364
Numerical simulation, 323â•“357
--- differential methods, 329â•“340
--- finite difference (FD) methods, 329â•“337
--- finite element methods (FEM), 338â•“340
--- integral methods, 341â•“346
--- modal methods, 346â•“349
O
Ophthalmoscope, slit-lamp, 10
Optical coherence tomography (OCT), 129â•“131,
--- 173
, 365
--- spectral-domain, 173
--- swept-frequency, 173
Optical diffraction tomography (ODT), 172
Optical waves, 31
, 373
--- absorption, 38
--- diffusion, 52
--- reflection, 44
--- refraction, 46
--- sources and detectors, 76
Orientation descriptors, 293
Oximetry, 40
, 252
P
Parsevalâ•™s theorem, 389
Penetration depth, 8
, 28
, 363
, 365
Perfectly matched layer (PML), 335
Permittivity, electric, 31
Phase objects, 103
Phased-arrays, 80
Photoacoustic tomography (PAT), 18
, 162
, 375
Photoluminescence, 58
Photon, 34
Photon-density wave, 56
Point spread function (PSF), 92
â•“99, 102
, 111,
--- 113
, 114
, 393
, 398
, 403
Polarization, 33
Polarization-sensitive imaging, 19
Positron emission tomography (PET), 155
Projection, 14
, 407
Projectionâ•“slice theorem, 146
, 395
, 402
Pseudo-inverse, 207
, 229
Q
Quadratic transformation, 90
R
Radar, 118
--- cross-well, 12
, 212
--- FMCW, 120
--- ground-penetrating, 8
, 119
, 162
, 374
, 376,
--- 377
--- millimeter-wave, 119
--- synthetic aperture, 158
Radiation pattern, 75
Radiative transfer, 53
, 56
--- in water, 266
Radioluminescence, 58
Radiowaves, 31
, 373
Radon transform, 144
Raman scattering, 58
Range tomography, 11
Ray tomography, 11
, 198
, 211
, 219
--- attenuated, 154
Receiver operating characteristics (ROC), 370,
--- 416
Receptive function, 92
, 399
Rectangular function, 390
Reflectance, 43
, 45
, 56
--- multilayer, 46
Reflection, 43
--- acoustic waves, 44
--- anti-reflection, 46
--- electromagnetic waves, 43
--- from sea bottom, 264
--- multilayer, 46
--- optical waves, 44
--- shear wave, 45
Reflectometry, 124
Refraction, 44
, 46
Registration, 285â•“305
--- feature-based, 290â•“300
--- intensity-based, 300â•“303
--- mutual-information-based, 303â•“305
--- of rotated images, 301
--- of scaled images, 301
--- of translated images, 300
Regularization, 214
â•“226, 229
, 230
--- parameter, 215
Remote sensing, 254
Resolution, 5
, 8
, 92
, 95
, 100
, 102
, 364
, 365
Resonance
--- nuclear magnetic, 63
Retinal angiography, 69
S
Sampling, 392
, 401
Scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT), 294
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 364
Scattering, 58
--- ?-ray, 59
--- anisotropy coefficient, 55
--- backscattering, 51
, 53
--- coefficient, 53
--- Compton, 59
--- cross-section, 48
--- diffusion, 52
--- dynamic, 51
--- elastic, 47â•“57
--- electron, 59
--- equivalence theorem, 341
--- from water column, 264
--- inelastic, 58â•“60
--- Mie, 49
--- multiple, 7
--- nonlinear, 60
--- quasi-elastic, 52
--- Raman, 58
--- Rayleigh, 47
stimulated Raman, 61
--- X-ray, 59
Seismic imaging, 123
, 159
, 364
--- INDEX 437
Seismic waves, 37
Semi-analytic mode matching (SAMM), 328,
--- 347â•“350
Sensitivity, 363
, 416
Sensor fusion, 316
Shear wave, 37
Signal combining, 307
Signal correction, 280
, 306
, 311
, 312
Similarity transformation, 90
, 286
Single-photon emission computed tomography
--- (SPECT), 154
Singular-value decomposition (SVD), 203
, 410
--- truncated, 215
Sinogram, 145
Sonar, 121
--- ground-penetrating (GPS), 375
, 377
Sources and detectors, 73â•“81
--- acoustic, 79
--- electromagnetic, 74
--- optical, 76
--- phased-array, 80
--- X-ray and ?-ray, 79
Specificity, 416
Spectral bands
--- acoustic, 35
--- electromagnetic, 31
--- in microscopy, 236
--- in molecular imaging, 236
Spectral image, 233
Spectral imaging, 233â•“257
--- computed tomography, 240
--- image acquisition, 237
--- models, 245
--- pushbroom scanning, 239
skin, 257
--- underwater, 263
--- unmixing, 249
--- whiskbroom scanning, 239
Spectral microscopy, 235
Spectral radiance, 265
Spectrometer, 237
Spectroscopy, 235
Spin echo, 65
Stability, 354
Stimulated emission depletion (STED), 115
Stimulated Raman scattering, 61
Structural imaging, 384
Structured illumination, 100
, 182
Synthetic aperture radar (SAR), 158
T
T-matrix method, 347
Terrahertz waves, 31
Thematic map, 274
Tikhonov inversion, 217
Timeâ•“slice theorem, 176
Time-of-flight imaging, 10
, 116
â•“124, 157
Time-reversal, 160
Tomography, 11
, 140â•“185
--- acousto-optic, 19
--- computed (CT), 364
, 365
--- computed axial, 152
--- diffraction, 165â•“172
--- diffuse optical (DOT), 12
, 181
, 364
, 365,
--- 382
, 383
--- electrical impedance (EIT), 12
, 184
, 364,
--- 382
, 384
--- emission, 153
--- Fourier-transform, 173
--- generalized, 180â•“185
--- optical coherence (OCT), 365
--- PET, 155
--- photoacoustic (PAT), 18
, 162
, 375
--- range, 11
, 157â•“364
--- ray, 11
, 142
â•“156, 198
, 211
, 219
--- SPECT, 154
--- ultrasonic diffraction (UDT), 384
--- wave, 12
, 165
â•“172, 199
, 212
Transfer function, 92
, 393
, 400
Transmittance, 28
, 40
, 43
, 45
, 54
, 56
--- multilayer, 46
Turbid media, 67
Two-photon
--- absorption, 61
, 113
--- fluorescence, 61
, 113
--- microscopy, 61
, 113
U
Ultrasonic diffraction tomography (UDT), 172,
--- 384
Ultrasonic imaging, 121
, 364
, 365
, 382
--- microbubbles, 69
Unmixing, 249
, 274
V
Validation, 355
W
Wave, 22â•“37
--- acoustic, 35
, 41
--- damped, 27
--- diffraction, 29
--- dispersion, 42
--- elastic, 37
--- electromagnetic, 31â•“34
--- generation, 28
--- in inhomogensous media, 65
--- P-, 37
--- photon-density, 56
--- propagation, 31
--- reflection, 43
--- refraction, 46
--- S-, 37
--- seismic, 37
--- shear, 37
Wave equation, 22
, 331
Wave tomography, 12
, 199
, 212
X
X-ray, 31
--- absorptiometry, 253
--- absorption, 40
--- backscattering, 59
--- 438 INDEX
--- diffraction, 170
--- dual energy, 253
--- imaging, 69
, 152
, 198
, 211
, 219
, 253
, 373
--- mammography, 378
, 381
--- scattering, 59
--- scintillation, 60
--- sources and detectors, 79
Y
Yee cube, 332
Z
Z-stack, 86
Zoeppritz equations, 45