Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
About the Author
1 Research in the Behavioral Sciences
1.1: The Beginnings of Behavioral Research
Contributors to Behavioral Research: Wilhelm Wundt and the Founding of Scientific Psychology
1.2: Goals of Behavioral Research
1.2.1: Describing Behavior
1.2.2: Predicting Behavior
1.2.3: Explaining Behavior
1.3: Behavioral Science and Common Sense
1.4: The Value of Research to the Student
1.5: The Scientific Approach
1.5.1: Systematic Empiricism
1.5.2: Public Verification
1.5.3: Solvable Problems
In Depth: Science and Pseudoscience
1.6: Detecting and Explaining Phenomena
1.6.1: Theories
1.6.2: Models
1.7: Research Hypotheses
1.7.1: Deduction and Induction
1.7.2: Testing Theories
1.8: Conceptual and Operational Definitions
Developing Your Research Skills: Getting Ideas for Research
1.9: Scientific Progress
1.9.1: Proof and Disproof in Science
1.9.2: Replication
In Depth: Solutions to the Replication Problem
1.9.3: The Scientific Filter
Developing Your Research Skills: Resisting Personal Biases
1.10: Strategies of Behavioral Research
1.10.1: Descriptive Research
1.10.2: Correlational Research
1.10.3: Experimental Research
1.10.4: Quasi-Experimental Research
1.10.5: Review of Behavioral Research Strategies
1.11: Domains of Behavioral Science
1.12: Behavioral Research on Nonhuman Animals
Behavioral Research Case Study: Chimpanzees Select the Best Collaborators
1.13: Decisions, Decisions, Decisions
Summary: Research in the Behavioral Sciences
Key Terms
2 Behavioral Variability and Research
2.1: Variability and the Research Process
2.1.1: The Goals of Behavioral Science
2.1.2: Research Questions
2.1.3: Research Design
2.1.4: Measurement of Behavior
2.1.5: Statistical Analyses
2.2: Variance
2.2.1: A Conceptual Explanation of Variance
2.2.2: A Statistical Explanation of Variance
Developing Your Research Skills: Statistical Notation
2.3: Systematic and Error Variance
2.3.1: Systematic Variance
Examples of Systematic Variance: Temperature and Aggression
2.3.2: Error Variance
2.3.3: Distinguishing Systematic from Error Variance
2.4: Assessing the Strength of Relationships
2.4.1: Effect Size
2.4.2: Small Effect Sizes Can Be Important
In Depth: Effect Sizes in Psychology, Medicine, and Baseball
2.5: Systematic Variance Across Studies
2.5.1: Meta-Analysis
Psychological Effects of Punishment on Children
Behavioral Research Case Study: Meta-Analyses of Gender Differences in Math Ability
2.6: The Quest for Systematic Variance
Summary: Behavioral Variability and Research
Key Terms
3 The Measurement of Behavior
3.1: Types of Measures
Behavioral Research Case Study: Converging Operations in Measurement
3.2: Scales of Measurement
3.2.1: Importance of Scales of Measurement
In Depth: Scales, Scales, and Scales
3.3: Assessing the Reliability of a Measure
3.3.1: Measurement Error
3.3.2: Reliability as Systematic Variance
3.3.3: Types of Reliability
Behavioral Research Case Study: Interitem Reliability and the Construction of Multi-Item Measures
In Depth: Reflective Versus Formative Measures
3.3.4: Increasing the Reliability of Measures
3.4: Assessing the Validity of a Measure
3.4.1: Types of Validity
Behavioral Research Case Study: Construct Validity
Behavioral Research Case Study: Criterion-Related Validity
3.5: Fairness and Bias in Measurement
In Depth: The Reliability and Validity of College Admission Exams
Summary: The Measurement of Behavior
Key Terms
4 Approaches to Psychological Measurement
4.1: Observational Approaches
4.1.1: Naturalistic Versus Contrived Settings
4.1.2: Disguised Versus Nondisguised Observation
Behavioral Research Case Study: Disguised Observation in Laboratory Settings
4.1.3: Behavioral Recording
4.1.4: Increasing the Reliability of Observational Methods
Behavioral Research Case Study: Predicting Divorce from Observing Husbands and Wives
4.2: Physiological and Neuroscience Approaches
4.2.1: Measures of Neural Electrical Activity
4.2.2: Neuroimaging
Behavioral Research Case Study: Judging Other People's Trustworthiness
4.2.3: Measures of Autonomic Nervous System Activity
4.2.4: Blood and Saliva Assays
4.2.5: Precise Measurement of Overt Reactions
4.3: Questionnaires and Interviews
4.3.1: Questionnaires
4.3.2: Sources for Existing Measures
4.3.3: Experience Sampling Methods
4.3.4: Interviews
Behavioral Research Case Study: An Interview Study of Runaway Adolescents
4.3.5: Advantages of Questionnaires Versus Interviews
4.4: Developing Items
4.4.1: Single-Item and Multi-Item Measures
4.4.2: Writing Items
4.4.3: Response Formats
In Depth: Choosing Response Options
In Depth: Asking for More Than Participants Can Report
4.5: Biases in Self-Report Measurement
4.5.1: The Social Desirability Response Bias
4.5.2: Acquiescence and Nay-Saying Response Styles
Developing Your Research Skills: Anti-Arab Attitudes in the Wake of 9/11
4.6: Archival Data
Behavioral Research Case Study: Predicting Greatness
4.7: Content Analysis
4.7.1: Steps in Content Analysis
Behavioral Research Case Study: What Makes People Boring?
Summary: Approaches to Psychological Measurement
Key Terms
5 Selecting Research Participants
5.1: A Common Misconception About Sampling
5.1.1: Probability Versus Nonprobabilty Samples
5.2: Probability Samples
5.2.1: The Error of Estimation
5.2.2: Simple Random Sampling
In Depth: Random Telephone Surveys
5.2.3: Systematic Sampling
5.2.4: Stratified Random Sampling
5.2.5: Cluster Sampling
In Depth: The Debate Over Sampling for the U.S. Census
5.2.6: A Review of Types of Probability Sampling
5.2.7: The Problem of Nonresponse
5.2.8: Factors Contributing to Nonresponse
5.2.9: Misgeneralization
5.3: Nonprobability Samples
5.3.1: Convenience Sampling
In Depth: College Students as Research Participants
5.3.2: Quota Sampling
5.3.3: Purposive Sampling
Behavioral Research Case Study: Sampling and Sex Surveys
5.4: How Many Participants?
5.4.1: Sample Size and Error of Estimation
5.4.2: Power
In Depth: Most Behavioral Studies Are Underpowered
Summary: Selecting Research Participants
Key Terms
6 Descriptive Research
6.1: Types of Descriptive Research
6.1.1: Survey Research
Behavioral Research Case Study: Cross-Sectional Survey Design
In Depth: Conducting Surveys on the Internet
6.1.2: Demographic Research
Behavioral Research Case Study: Demographic Research
6.1.3: Epidemiological Research
Behavioral Research Case Study: Why Do More Men Than Women Die Prematurely?
6.2: Describing and Presenting Data
6.3: Frequency Distributions
6.3.1: Simple Frequency Distributions
6.3.2: Grouped Frequency Distributions
6.3.3: Frequency Histograms and Polygons
6.4: Measures of Central Tendency
6.4.1: Presenting Means in Tables and Graphs
6.4.2: Confidence Intervals
Developing Your Research Skills: How to Lie with Statistics
6.5: Measures of Variability
6.5.1: Normal Distributions
6.5.2: Skewed Distributions
6.6: The z-Score
Developing Your Research Skills: A Descriptive Study of Pathological Video-Game Use
Summary: Descriptive Research
Key Terms
7 Correlational Research
7.1: The Relationship Between Two or More Variables
7.1.1: The Correlation Coefficient
7.2: A Graphical Representation of Correlations
7.2.1: Curvilinear Relationships
7.2.2: Interpreting Correlation Coefficients
7.3: The Coefficient of Determination
7.3.1: Correlation and Systematic Variance
7.4: Calculating the Pearson Correlation Coefficient
7.4.1: The Formula for Calculating r
Contributors to Behavioral Research: The Invention of Correlation
7.5: Statistical Significance of r
7.5.1: Testing the Statistical Significance of Correlation Coefficients
7.6: Factors That Distort Correlation Coefficients
7.6.1: Restricted Range
7.6.2: Outliers
7.6.3: Reliability of Measures
7.7: Correlation and Causality
Behavioral Research Case Study: Correlates of Satisfying Relationships
7.8: Testing Causal Possibilities
7.8.1: Partial Correlation
Behavioral Research Case Study: Partial Correlation
7.9: Other Indices of Correlation
Summary: Correlational Research
Key Terms
8 Advanced Correlational Strategies
8.1: Linear Regression
8.1.1: Linear Relationships
8.2: Multiple Regression
8.2.1: Standard Multiple Regression
Behavioral Research Case Study: Standard Multiple Regression Analysis
8.2.2: Stepwise Multiple Regression
Behavioral Research Case Study: Predictors of Blushing
8.2.3: Hierarchical Multiple Regression
Behavioral Research Case Study: Personal and Interpersonal Antecedents of Peer Victimization
8.2.4: Multiple Correlation
8.3: Assessing Directionality
8.3.1: Cross-Lagged Panel Design
8.3.2: Structural Equations Modeling
Behavioral Research Case Study: Partner Attractiveness and Intention to Practice Safe Sex
8.4: Nested Data and Multilevel Modeling
Behavioral Research Case Study: Birth Order and Intelligence
8.5: Factor Analysis
8.5.1: An Intuitive Approach
8.5.2: Basics of Factor Analysis
8.5.3: Uses of Factor Analysis
Behavioral Research Case Study: The Five-Factor Model of Personality
Summary: Advanced Correlational Strategies
Key Terms
9 Basic Issues in Experimental Research
9.1: The Use of Experimental Designs
9.2: Manipulating the Independent Variable
9.2.1: Independent Variables
9.2.2: Types of Independent Variables
Behavioral Research Case Study: Emotional Contagion
9.2.3: Dependent Variables
Developing Your Research Skills: Identifying Independent and Dependent Variables
9.3: Assigning Participants to Conditions
9.3.1: Simple Random Assignment
9.3.2: Matched Random Assignment
9.3.3: Repeated Measures Designs
Behavioral Research Case Study: A Within-Subjects Design
Behavioral Research Case Study: Carryover Effects in Cognitive Psychology
9.4: Experimental Control
9.4.1: Systematic Variance Revisited
9.4.2: Error (Within-Groups) Variance
9.4.3: Three Components of Total Variance
9.5: Eliminating Confounds
9.5.1: Internal Validity
Developing Your Research Skills: Can You Find the Confound?
9.5.2: Threats to Internal Validity
9.6: Experimenter Expectancies, Demand Characteristics, and Placebo Effects
9.6.1: Experimenter Expectancy Effects
9.6.2: Demand Characteristics
9.6.3: Placebo Effects
Behavioral Research Case Study: The Kind of Placebo Matters
9.7: Error Variance
9.7.1: Sources of Error Variance
9.7.2: Concluding Remarks on Error Variance
In Depth: The Shortcomings of Experimentation
9.8: External Validity
In Depth: But It's Not Real Life
9.9: Web-Based Experimental Research
Summary: Basic Issues in Experimental Research
Key Terms
10 Experimental Design
10.1: One-Way Designs
10.1.1: Assigning Participants to Conditions
Developing Your Research Skills: Design Your Own Experiments
10.1.2: Posttest-Only Designs
10.1.3: Pretest-Posttest Designs
10.1.4: Posttest-Only Versus Pretest-Posttest Designs
10.2: Factorial Designs
10.2.1: Two-Way Factorial Designs
10.2.2: Higher-Order Factorial Designs
10.2.3: Assigning Participants to Conditions
10.3: Main Effects and Interactions
10.3.1: Main Effects
10.3.2: Interactions
Developing Your Research Skills: Graphing Interactions
10.3.3: Three-Way Factorial Designs
10.4: Combining Independent and Participant Variables
10.4.1: Uses of Mixed/Expericorr Designs
10.4.2: Classifying Participants into Groups
Behavioral Research Case Study: Narcissism and the Appeal of Scarce Products
10.4.3: Cautions in Interpreting Results of Mixed/Expericorr Designs
Summary: Experimental Design
Key Terms
11 Analyzing Experimental Data
11.1: An Intuitive Approach to Analysis
11.1.1: Error Variance Can Cause Differences Between Means
11.2: Significance Testing
11.2.1: The Null Hypothesis
11.2.2: Type I and Type II Errors
11.2.3: Power
11.2.4: Comparing Type I and Type II Errors
11.2.5: Problems with Null Hypothesis Testing
In Depth: Reporting p-Values
11.3: Effect Size
11.3.1: Cohen's d
11.3.2: The Odds Ratio
11.3.3: Determining the Effect Size Indicator
Behavioral Research Case Study: Taking Class Notes
11.4: Confidence Intervals
11.4.1: Confidence Intervals for Means
11.4.2: Confidence Intervals for Differences Between Means
In Depth: Confidence Intervals and Standard Errors
Behavioral Research Case Study: Scarcity and the Exclusion of Ambiguous Group Members
Summary: Analyzing Experimental Data
Key Terms
12 Statistical Analyses
12.1: Analysis of Two-Group Experiments Using the t-Test
Contributors to Behavioral Research: W. S. Gosset and Statistics in the Brewery
12.1.1: Conducting a t-Test
Developing Your Research Skills: Computational Example of a t-Test
12.1.2: Designing and Analyzing Two-Group Experiments
12.1.3: Back to the Droodles Experiment
12.1.4: Directional and Nondirectional Hypotheses
12.2: Conducting Multiple Tests Inflates Type I Error
12.2.1: The Bonferroni Adjustment
12.3: The Rationale behind ANOVA
12.4: How ANOVA Works
12.4.1: Total Sum of Squares
12.4.2: Sum of Squares Within-Groups
12.4.3: Sum of Squares Between-Groups
12.4.4: The F-Test
12.4.5: Extension of ANOVA to Factorial Designs
Contributors to Behavioral Research: Fisher, Experimental Design, and the Analysis of Variance
12.5: Follow-Up Tests to ANOVA
12.5.1: Main Effects for Independent Variables with More than Two Levels
12.5.2: Interactions
Behavioral Research Case Study: Liking People Who Eat More than We Do
12.5.3: Interpreting Main Effects and Interactions
Developing Your Research Skills: Cultural Differences in Reactions to Social Support
12.6: Analyses of Within-Subjects Designs
12.7: Multivariate Analysis of Variance
12.7.1: Conceptually Related Dependent Variables
12.7.2: Inflation of Type I Error
12.7.3: How MANOVA Works
Behavioral Research Case Study: An Example of MANOVA
12.8: Experimental and Nonexperimental Uses of t-Tests, ANOVA, and MANOVA
In Depth: Computerized Analyses
Summary: Statistical Analyses
Key Terms
13 Quasi-Experimental Designs
In Depth: The Internal Validity Continuum
13.1: Pretest-Posttest Designs
13.1.1: Why Not to Use the One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
13.1.2: Nonequivalent Control Group Design
Behavioral Research Case Study: Perceived Responsibility and Well-Being Among the Elderly
Behavioral Research Case Study: Motivational Climate in Youth Sports
13.1.3: Ensuring Similarity in Nonequivalent Control Designs
13.2: Time Series Designs
13.2.1: Simple Interrupted Time Series Design
Behavioral Research Case Study: The Effects of No-Fault Divorce
13.2.2: Interrupted Time Series with a Reversal
13.2.3: Control Group Interrupted Time Series Design
Behavioral Research Case Study: Traffic Fatalities After 9/11
13.3: Comparative Time Series Design
Behavioral Research Case Study: Comparative Time Series Design
13.4: Longitudinal Designs
Behavioral Research Case Study: The Stability of Personality in Infancy and Childhood
13.5: Cross-Sequential Cohort Designs
13.6: Program Evaluation
Developing Your Research Skills: Broken Experiments
Contributors to Behavioral Research: Donald Campbell and Quasi-Experimentation
13.7: Evaluating Quasi-Experimental Designs
13.7.1: Threats to Internal Validity
13.7.2: Increasing Confidence in Quasi-Experimental Results
Summary: Quasi-Experimental Designs
Key Terms
14 Single-Case Research
Contributors to Behavioral Research: Single-Case Researchers
14.1: Single-Case Experimental Designs
14.1.1: Criticisms of Group Designs and Analyses
In Depth: How Group Designs Misled Us About Learning Curves
14.2: Basic Single-Case Experimental Designs
14.2.1: ABA Designs
14.2.2: Multiple-I Designs
14.2.3: Multiple Baseline Designs
14.2.4: Data from Single-Participant Designs
14.2.5: Uses of Single-Case Experimental Designs
Behavioral Research Case Study: Treatment of Stuttering
14.2.6: Critique of Single-Participant Designs
14.3: Case Study Research
14.3.1: Uses of the Case Study Method
14.3.2: Limitations of the Case Study Approach
Behavioral Research Case Study: A Case Study of a Case Study
Summary: Single-Case Research
Key Terms
15 Ethical Issues in Behavioral Research
15.1: Approaches to Ethical Decisions
In Depth: What Is Your Ethical Ideology?
15.2: Basic Ethical Guidelines
15.2.1: Potential Benefits
15.2.2: Potential Costs
15.2.3: The Institutional Review Board
15.3: The Principle of Informed Consent
15.3.1: Obtaining Informed Consent
15.3.2: Problems with Obtaining Informed Consent
Developing Your Research Skills: Elements of an Informed Consent Form
15.4: Invasion of Privacy
Developing Your Research Skills: What Constitutes Invasion of Privacy?
15.5: Coercion to Participate
15.6: Physical and Mental Stress
In Depth: Do Studies of Sensitive Topics Exceed Minimal Risk?
15.7: Deception
15.7.1: Objections to Deception
15.8: Confidentiality
Behavioral Research Case Study: The Milgram Experiments
15.9: Debriefing
15.10: Common Courtesy
15.11: Vulnerable Populations
In Depth: Internet Research Ethics
Developing Your Research Skills: Ethical Decisions
15.12: Ethical Principles in Research with Nonhuman Animals
In Depth: Behavioral Research and Animal Rights
15.13: Scientific Misconduct
15.13.1: Fabrication, Falsification, and Plagiarism
15.13.2: Questionable Research Practices
15.13.3: Unethical Behavior
15.14: Ethical Issues in Analyzing Data and Reporting Results
15.14.1: Analyzing Data
15.14.2: Reporting Results
15.14.3: An Ethical Guidepost
15.15: Suppression of Scientific Inquiry and Research Findings
In Depth: Should Scientists Consider the Ethical Implications of Controversial Findings?
15.16: A Final Note on Ethical Abuses
Summary: Ethical Issues in Behavioral Research
Key Terms
16 Scientific Writing
16.1: How Scientific Findings Are Disseminated
16.1.1: Journal Publication
16.1.2: Presentations at Professional Meetings
16.1.3: Personal Contact
In Depth: Peer Review, the Media, and the Internet
16.2: Elements of Good Scientific Writing
16.2.1: Organization
16.2.2: Clarity
16.2.3: Conciseness
Developing Your Research Skills: What's Wrong with These Sentences?
16.2.4: Proofreading and Rewriting
16.3: Avoiding Biased Language
16.3.1: Gender-Neutral Language
In Depth: Does Gender-Inclusive Language Really Matter?
16.3.2: Other Language Pitfalls
16.4: Parts of a Manuscript
16.4.1: Title Page
16.4.2: Abstract
16.4.3: Introduction
16.4.4: Method
16.4.5: Results
16.4.6: Discussion
16.5: Citing and Referencing Previous Research
16.5.1: Citations in the Text
Improving Your Research Skills: Write About Behavior and Research, Not About Authors
16.5.2: The Reference List
In Depth: Electronic Sources and Locator Information
16.6: Other Aspects of APA Style
16.6.1: Headings, Spacing, Pagination, and Numbers
In Depth: Who Deserves the Credit?
16.7: Writing a Research Proposal
16.8: Using PsycINFO
16.9: Sample Manuscript
Summary: Scientific Writing
Key Terms
Statistical Tables
Computational Formulas for ANOVA
Choosing the Appropriate Statistical Analysis
Glossary
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References
Credits
Index
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