With the increasing number of biopharmaceutical products, the emerging market for gene therapeutics, and the high proportion of small molecule new drug candidates that have very poor solubility, the need for parenteral dispersed system pharmaceuticals is growing rapidly. <br><br>This book serves as
Injectable dispersed systems: formulation, processing, and performance
β Scribed by Diane J. Burgess
- Publisher
- Taylor & Francis
- Year
- 2005
- Tongue
- English
- Leaves
- 686
- Series
- Drugs and the pharmaceutical sciences 149
- Edition
- 1
- Category
- Library
No coin nor oath required. For personal study only.
β¦ Synopsis
This authoritative guide will serve as the most current source on the design and manufacturing of parenteral dispersed systems-showcasing the utility of dispersed systems in drug delivery, drug targeting, and pharmaceutical engineering.
β¦ Table of Contents
Preface......Page 16
Contents......Page 20
Acknowledgments......Page 28
Contributors......Page 30
1. INTRODUCTION AND THEORY......Page 34
2. COLLOID AND INTERFACIAL CHEMISTRY......Page 35
2.1.1. Lyophilic Colloids......Page 36
2.1.2. Lyophobic Colloids......Page 37
2.1.3. Association Colloids......Page 38
2.2.2. Scattering of Radiation......Page 41
2.3. Thermal Motion......Page 42
3.1.1. Attractive Forces......Page 43
3.1.2. Repulsive Forces......Page 44
3.1.3. Stabilization of Lyophobic Colloids......Page 46
3.2. Thermodynamics of Dispersed Systems Dosage Forms......Page 47
3.2.1. Emulsions......Page 48
3.2.2. Suspensions......Page 49
3.2.3. Mechanisms of Emulsion and Suspension Destabilization......Page 50
3.2.5. Factors Affecting Emulsion and Suspension Breakdown and Stabilization......Page 55
3.2.6. Emulsion and Suspension Stabilizing Agents......Page 57
3.2.7. Predicting Emulsion Stability......Page 60
3.2.8. Methods of Emulsion Stability Testing......Page 63
3.2.9. Controls for Emulsion Stability Tests......Page 64
3.3. Multiple Emulsions......Page 65
3.3.1. Criteria to Assess Multiple Emulsion Stability......Page 66
REFERENCES......Page 67
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 72
2.1.1. Variation in Absorption......Page 75
2.1.2. Extent of Absorption......Page 76
2.1.3. Physicochemical Characteristics of Drugs......Page 77
2.2. Drug Absorption from Oily Vehicles......Page 80
3. DRUG ABSORPTION FROM DRUG CARRIER SYSTEMS......Page 82
3.1. Absorption of Drug Carrier Systems......Page 84
3.2. Drug Release from Carrier Systems......Page 85
4.1.1. Conventional Drug Formulations......Page 88
4.2. Injection Depth......Page 90
4.3. Anatomical Site of Injection......Page 92
5. CARRIER KINETICS AND TARGETING......Page 93
6. TISSUE PROTECTIVE EFFECT OF DISPERSED SYSTEMS......Page 96
7. SUMMARY......Page 98
REFERENCES......Page 99
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 110
2. PARTICLE SIZE MEASUREMENT......Page 112
2.1.1. Optical Microscopy......Page 115
2.1.2. Electron Microscopy......Page 117
2.2. Electrical Sensing Zone Method......Page 118
2.3. Optical Sensing Zone Method......Page 119
2.4. Dynamic Light Scattering Method (Photon Correlation Spectroscopy)......Page 120
2.4.1. Basic Equations......Page 121
2.4.2. Data Interpretation......Page 122
2.4.3. Fit to a Known Distribution......Page 123
2.4.4. Cumulant Analysis......Page 124
2.4.5. Intensity Weighting of the Averaging......Page 125
2.4.6. Non-spherical Particles......Page 127
2.4.7. Advanced Data Interpretation......Page 128
2.4.8. Particle Size Characterization of Injectable......Page 129
3. ZETA POTENTIAL......Page 130
3.1. Electrophoresis......Page 134
3.2. Laser Doppler Electrophoresis......Page 135
3.3. Zeta Potential Calculation......Page 136
3.4. Contribution of Zeta Potential Measurements......Page 137
3.5. Limitations......Page 139
4.1. Bulk Rheology......Page 140
4.1.1. Flow Tests......Page 141
4.1.2. Creep Tests......Page 142
4.1.3. Oscillatory Tests......Page 144
4.1.4. Applications......Page 145
4.1.5. Interfacial Rheology......Page 147
4.1.6. Limitations......Page 148
REFERENCES......Page 149
1.1. Basis of Dissolution Testing......Page 158
1.2. General Considerations......Page 160
1.3. Applicability to Injectable Dispersed Systems......Page 162
1.4.2. Liposomes......Page 163
1.5.1. Membrane Diffusion Techniques......Page 164
1.5.2. Sample and Separate Techniques......Page 168
1.5.4. Continuous Flow Methods......Page 169
1.6. Method Development......Page 171
2.1. Calculation of Cumulative Release......Page 172
2.2. Mathematical Description of Release Profile......Page 173
2.3. Comparison of Release Profiles......Page 174
3.1. Introduction......Page 175
3.2.1. Ethical Considerations......Page 181
4. BIOANALYSIS......Page 182
5. INJECTABILITY......Page 183
6. CONCLUSIONS......Page 184
REFERENCES......Page 186
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 192
2. A GENERAL APPROACH TO DEVELOPING A LEVEL A IVIVC......Page 194
2.2. Predictability of the Level A IVIVC......Page 196
3.1. Study Design......Page 199
3.3. IVIVC Using Time Scaling and Shifting......Page 201
3.4. Plasma Concentration Profiles......Page 203
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 207
REFERENCES......Page 208
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 210
2. PREPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF THE DRUG......Page 213
2.2. Solid-State Characterization......Page 214
3. BIOPHARMACEUTICAL CONSIDERATIONS......Page 217
3.1. Effect of Physical-Chemical Factors on Bioavailability......Page 218
3.2.1. Absorption Across the Capillary Wall......Page 220
3.3. Physiological Factors......Page 222
4. PHYSICAL STABILITY OF COARSE SUSPENSIONS......Page 224
5.1. Particle Size Distribution......Page 230
5.2. Excipients......Page 231
5.3. Buffers......Page 234
5.4. Wetting......Page 235
6.1. Ready-to-Use Suspension vs. Powder for Reconstitution......Page 236
6.2.1. Particle Size Reduction......Page 238
6.2.2. Sterilization......Page 239
7. EVALUATION OF PRODUCT QUALITY......Page 241
8. CONCLUSION......Page 242
REFERENCES......Page 243
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 246
1.1. Parenteral Nutrition......Page 247
1.2. Parenteral Drug Delivery......Page 248
1.2.1. Drug Solubility......Page 249
1.3. Classification of Emulsions......Page 251
1.4. Emulsion Destabilization......Page 253
1.5. Emulsion Characterization......Page 255
1.5.1. Evaluation of Emulsion Stability......Page 256
1.5.2. In Vitro Release......Page 258
1.5.3. Theoretical Models Proposed for Drug......Page 260
1.5.4. Effect of Micelles on Drug Transport in......Page 264
2. MANUFACTURING AND PROCESS CONDITIONS......Page 265
2.1. Condensation Method......Page 266
2.3. Intermittent Shaking Method......Page 268
2.4. Mixers......Page 269
2.5. Colloid Mills......Page 270
2.7. Homogenizer......Page 271
3. LYOPHILIZATION OF EMULSIONS......Page 272
4. CONCLUSIONS......Page 273
REFERENCES......Page 274
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 282
2. LIPOSOMES: DEFINITIONS AND CLASSES......Page 283
3. VERSATILITY OF DRUGS DELIVERED USING LIPOSOMES......Page 284
3.1. Low Molecular Weight Drugs......Page 285
3.3. DNA-Based Therapeutics......Page 288
4. ADVANTAGES OF LIPOSOMAL DELIVERY SYSTEMS......Page 289
4.2. Liposomes for Tissue Targeting......Page 290
4.3. Liposomes for Immunopotentiation......Page 291
4.5. Transdermal Drug Delivery Using Liposomes......Page 292
5.1. Conventional Liposomes......Page 293
5.3. Liposomes for Gene Delivery......Page 295
5.4. Lipid Specifications......Page 297
6. MANUFACTURE OF LIPOSOMES......Page 298
6.2. Liposome Preparation by Freeze-Thaw Cycling of MLV......Page 299
6.4. Liposome Preparation by Dehydration/ Rehydration......Page 300
6.5. Liposome Preparation by Reverse Phase Evaporation......Page 301
6.7. Liposome Preparation Using Detergent Dialysis......Page 302
6.8. Freeze-Drying of Liposomes......Page 303
7. LIPOSOME DRUG ENCAPSULATION TECHNIQUES......Page 304
7.1. Passive Encapsulation......Page 305
7.2. Active Encapsulation......Page 306
7.3. Drug Complexation......Page 307
8. LIPOSOME CHARACTERIZATION AND COMPENDIAL REQUIREMENTS......Page 308
8.1. Morphological and Biophysical Characterization......Page 309
8.2. Drug Loading and Release Characterization......Page 310
8.3.1. Chemical Stability......Page 313
8.3.2. Physical Stability......Page 314
8.4. Sterilization of Liposomal Products......Page 315
9. CONCLUSIONS......Page 316
REFERENCES......Page 317
Microspheres: Design and Manufacturing......Page 338
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 339
1.1. Small Molecular Weight Drugs......Page 340
1.2. Protein Therapeutics......Page 341
1.2.1. Live Cells......Page 342
2.1.1. Typical Polymers......Page 345
2.2.1. Release......Page 348
2.3. In Vitro Release Testing......Page 351
2.4. In Vivo Release Testing......Page 353
2.6. Drug Loading......Page 354
2.8. Sterility Testing......Page 356
2.8.1. Chemical Stability and Protection from Degradation......Page 357
3. TISSUE TARGETING......Page 358
5. COMMERCIAL PROSPECTS......Page 359
5.1.1. Wax Coating and Hot Melt......Page 360
5.1.2. Spray Coating and Pan Coating......Page 361
5.1.3. Coacervation......Page 362
5.1.4. Divalent Ion Gelling......Page 364
5.1.5. Spray Drying......Page 365
5.1.7. Precipitation......Page 367
5.1.9. Supercritical Fluid Techniques......Page 368
5.2. Scale-up Approaches......Page 370
6. CONCLUSIONS......Page 371
REFERENCES......Page 372
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 388
2. PHARMACEUTICS......Page 391
3. FORMULATION DEVELOPMENT......Page 393
4. PHARMACOKINETICS/ PHARMACODYNAMICS......Page 396
6. SCALE-UP......Page 399
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 402
REFERENCE......Page 403
1.1. Biological Requirements for PFC Emulsions......Page 404
1.2. Clinical Applications for PFC Emulsions......Page 405
2.2. Biological Screening......Page 407
3.1. Premix Formation......Page 412
3.2. High Pressure Homogenization......Page 413
4.1. Nonemulsified Perfluorocarbon......Page 420
4.2. Product Uniformity......Page 421
5. CONCLUSIONS......Page 423
REFERENCES......Page 424
1. OUTLINE......Page 426
2.1. R&D Area......Page 427
3.1. Sterilization Engineering......Page 428
3.2. Thermal Mapping Studies......Page 429
3.3 Emulsion: Moist Heat Resistance Analysis......Page 432
3.4. Closure Microbial Inactivation Studies......Page 434
3.6. Accumulated F(Bio) for Lipid Emulsions......Page 435
3.8. Maintenance of Sterility Studies......Page 437
4.2. Sterilization Cycles......Page 438
4.4. Sterilizer Microbial Closure SubProcess Validation......Page 439
5. REGULATORY SUBMISSION......Page 442
5.1. Aseptic Processing......Page 443
5.2. Terminal Sterilization......Page 444
REFERENCES......Page 445
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 448
2.1. Oil......Page 449
2.3. Tonicity Adjuster......Page 450
2.4.2. Preservatives......Page 451
3. PROCESSING......Page 452
5.1. pH and Free Fatty Acids......Page 455
5.3. Visual Evaluation......Page 456
REFERENCES......Page 457
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 460
2. BACKGROUND......Page 461
3.1. Improve Anti-tumor Activity of Doxorubicinby "Passive" Liposome Targeting......Page 462
3.2. Provide Required Pharmaceutical Attributes......Page 463
3.3. Craft Regulatory Approval Strategy......Page 465
4.1.1. Conventional Liposomes......Page 468
4.1.2. Long Circulating Liposomes......Page 470
4.2.1. Production......Page 476
4.2.2. Stability......Page 478
4.3. Clinical and Regulatory Strategy......Page 479
4.3.1. Clinical Pharmacology......Page 481
4.3.2. Pivotal Clinical Studies......Page 485
4.4. NDA Contents, FDA Review, and Approval......Page 494
4.5.1. Blinded Comparative Trial in KS......Page 496
4.5.2. Cardiotoxicity Assessment......Page 497
4.5.4. Post-Marketing Trials......Page 498
5. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES......Page 502
REFERENCES......Page 505
1. DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM......Page 514
2. OVERVIEW OF AMPHOTERICIN B/LIPID FORMULATIONS......Page 517
3.1. Formulation Criteria......Page 518
3.2. Selection of Lipids......Page 519
3.4. Raw Materials......Page 520
3.5. Pre-Clinical In Vitro Efficacy and Toxicity Testing......Page 521
3.6. Pre-Clinical In Vivo Toxicity Testing......Page 522
3.7. Pharmacokinetic Testing......Page 523
3.8. Pre-Clinical In Vivo Efficacy Testing......Page 525
3.9. Mode of Action......Page 526
3.10. Clinical Testing......Page 536
3.10.1. Early Clinical Trials of AmBisome in Europe......Page 538
3.10.2. Prophylactic Studies......Page 540
3.10.3. Therapeutic Studies......Page 542
3.10.4. Clinical Studies in the United States......Page 544
4. SUMMARY......Page 547
REFERENCES......Page 548
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 560
3. INTRAMUSCULAR LOXAPINE FORMULATION......Page 563
4. STUDY OBJECTIVES......Page 564
5. IN VITRO LIPOSOMAL MYOTOXICITY STUDIES......Page 565
6. LOXAPINE LIPOSOMAL FORMULATIONS AND IN VITRO MYOTOXICITY STUDIES......Page 567
7. IN VIVO MYOTOXICITY OF A LOXAPINE LIPOSOMAL FORMULATION......Page 570
8. CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 573
REFERENCES......Page 574
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 576
2.1. Characterization Studies......Page 577
2.2.1. Summary of Stability Results......Page 583
2.4. Preliminary In Vitro-In Vivo Correlation......Page 587
2.5.2. Release of Drug into Suspending Medium......Page 592
3. IN VIVO STUDY......Page 593
3.1.2. Study Design......Page 595
3.2. Results and Discussion......Page 596
3.3. Injection Site......Page 599
REFERENCE......Page 603
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 604
2. GUIDELINE #1: MINIMIZE MOLECULAR MOBILITY TO MAXIMIZE STABILITY......Page 605
3. GUIDELINE #2: UNDERSTAND THE ROLE OF PARTICLE STRUCTURE AND MORPHOLOGY IN PRODUCT FUNCTION AND STABILITY......Page 609
REFERENCES......Page 612
1. INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE......Page 616
2.2. International Considerations......Page 617
2.3. Current Good Manufacturing Practices......Page 618
2.4. Pre-Approval Inspections......Page 620
2.5. Regulatory Enforcement......Page 622
3. QUALITY DURING THE PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT PHASE......Page 624
3.1. Metrology......Page 625
3.3. Process Analytical Technology......Page 627
3.4. Batch Testing......Page 628
3.5. Required Additional Testing......Page 630
4. RAW MATERIALS......Page 631
4.1.1. Raw Material Specifications......Page 632
4.1.2. Specific Raw Material Concerns......Page 633
4.2. Packaging Materials......Page 634
6.1. Filtration......Page 635
6.2. Depyrogenation......Page 636
6.4. Validation......Page 638
6.5. Cleaning Validation......Page 641
6.6. Sterilization and Sterility Assurance......Page 642
6.6.1. Methods......Page 643
6.7. Manufacturing Deviations......Page 644
6.9. Stability......Page 645
6.10. Facility......Page 646
6.11. Manufacturing Materials......Page 648
REFERENCES......Page 649
APPENDIX 1. ICH GUIDELINES......Page 650
1. INTRODUCTION......Page 654
2. LIPOSOMES......Page 655
2.1. Pharmacokinetic Studies......Page 657
2.2. Analytical Methods......Page 659
2.3. Assessment of Bioavailability and Bioequivalence......Page 660
2.4. In Vitro Release Tests......Page 663
3. MICROSPHERES......Page 664
3.1. Microspheres vs. Conventional Dosage Forms......Page 665
3.2. Pharmacokinetics of Microsphere Drug Products......Page 667
3.3. Bioavailability and Bioequivalence......Page 668
3.4. In Vitro Release Testing......Page 671
REFERENCES......Page 673
Index......Page 678
Back cover......Page 686
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