Human Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: Current and Future Perspectives

✍ Scribed by Bryan W. Brooks, Duane B. Huggett

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2012
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 302
• Series: Emerging Topics in Ecotoxicology: Principles, Approaches and Perspectives, Vol. 4
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Human interaction with the environment remains one of the most pervasive facets of modern society. In a world characterized by rapid population growth, unprecedented global trade and digital communications, energy security, natural resource scarcities, climatic changes and environmental quality, emerging diseases and public health, biodiversity and habitat modifications are routinely touted by the popular press as they canvas global political agendas and scholarly endeavors.

✦ Table of Contents

front-matter......Page 1
Human Pharmaceuticals in the Environment
......Page 3
Contents......Page 5
Contributors......Page 7
Background......Page 9
Environmental Analysis and Exposure......Page 12
Environmental Bioaccumulation and Effects......Page 14
References......Page 20
Introduction......Page 25
PERA in the USA......Page 27
PERA in the European Union......Page 30
PERA Developments in Japan......Page 37
Further PERA Requirements......Page 38
Other PERA Initiatives: The Swedish Environmental Classi fi cation and Simpli fi ed ERA of “Old” PAS Already on the Market......Page 39
Is PERA Beyond REACH?......Page 40
The European Water Framework Directive and PAS......Page 41
ERA for the Production of Pharmaceuticals?......Page 42
A Short Comparison with PERA for Veterinary Pharmacueticals......Page 43
Outlook and Conclusion......Page 47
References......Page 51
Introduction......Page 56
Regulation in the USA......Page 57
The NEPA Process......Page 58
History of NEPA and the US FDA......Page 59
Current Practice in Environmental Assessment at the US FDA......Page 60
Regulation of Pharmaceuticals in the Environment in the European Union......Page 64
Appendix: Table of abbreviations......Page 65
References......Page 66
Introduction......Page 69
Equilibrium Processes......Page 70
Solubility and Melting Point......Page 71
Octanol–Water Partitioning......Page 72
Partitioning Between Water and Air......Page 73
Partitioning Between Water and Sludge, Sediment or Soil......Page 74
Elimination Rates......Page 75
Activated Sludge......Page 76
Water-Sediment or Soil......Page 77
Uptake into Organisms......Page 80
Transport of Pharmaceuticals Around the Environment......Page 81
Future Needs......Page 84
References......Page 86
Introduction......Page 90
Information on Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Human Pharmaceuticals......Page 92
Predicting Conserved Function of Proteins......Page 93
Homologs, Orthologs, and Paralogs......Page 94
Orthology Predictions......Page 95
Absorption and Distribution......Page 97
Passive Diffusion and Carrier-Mediated Uptake......Page 98
Plasma-Protein Binding......Page 100
Metabolism and Excretion......Page 101
Drug Targets......Page 103
Mode-of-Action......Page 105
Microarray Analysis......Page 106
Transcription-Factor Proteins......Page 107
References......Page 108
Introduction......Page 114
Background......Page 115
Exposure Reconstruction......Page 116
The Challenges of Reconstructing Ecological Exposures......Page 118
Vitellogenin, the Answer in an Egg Shell; Once in a Genome Opportunity......Page 123
Acknowledging the Dynamics and Complexities......Page 130
Down the Primrose Pathway......Page 131
Beyond Genes and Proteins......Page 133
Epigenetics; Methylation and microRNA......Page 134
Otolith Geochemistry......Page 137
Coda: Reconstructing Ecological Exposures......Page 138
References......Page 140
Introduction......Page 143
Overview of Sublethal Effects in Risk Assessment......Page 145
Establishing Causality and Con fi dence......Page 148
Examples in Vertebrates (Fish) and Invertebrates......Page 152
Examples in Plants......Page 157
Approach and Strategy: Orienting the ERA......Page 159
Conclusions......Page 164
References......Page 165
Human Health Risk Assessment for Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: Existing Practice, Uncertainty, and Future Directions......Page 170
Introduction......Page 171
Detections of APIs in the Environment......Page 173
Routes of Pharmaceutical Introduction into the Environment......Page 174
Excretion......Page 175
Improper Disposal......Page 176
Manufacturing Waste Streams......Page 177
APIs in Biosolids......Page 178
Fate and Behavior of APIs in the Environment......Page 179
Human Exposure......Page 181
Measured Environmental Concentrations......Page 182
Predicted Exposure Concentrations......Page 187
Exposure Through Food......Page 189
Hazard and Dose–Response Assessment......Page 190
Selection of Substances for Risk Assessment......Page 191
Setting of Safety Values......Page 192
Risk Characterization......Page 197
Microbial Resistance......Page 201
Uncertainty in Substance Selection/Hazard Assessment......Page 212
Mixtures......Page 213
Uncertainty in Toxicity Values......Page 214
Uncertainty in Exposure......Page 215
Conclusion......Page 217
References......Page 219
Wastewater and Drinking Water Treatment Technologies......Page 228
Introduction......Page 229
TOrC Occurrence in Water and Wastewater......Page 232
Activated Carbon Adsorption......Page 237
Ultraviolet Light (Photolysis)......Page 240
Free Chlorine and Chloramine......Page 242
Ozone......Page 244
TOrC Removal During Wastewater Treatment......Page 245
Conventional Wastewater Treatment......Page 246
Advanced Wastewater Treatment: Membranes......Page 247
Advanced Wastewater Treatment: Advanced Oxidation Processes......Page 249
Advanced Wastewater Treatment: Indirect Potable Reuse Treatment Trains......Page 250
Advanced Wastewater Treatment: Residual Management......Page 252
Conclusions......Page 254
References......Page 255
Introduction......Page 259
Objectives of Take Back Programs......Page 261
Measuring Success......Page 265
Scienti fi c Justi fi cation......Page 266
Risk Perception......Page 268
Risk Communication and Education......Page 272
Improving Medication Management Strategies......Page 274
Potential Roadblocks......Page 277
Pharmaceutical Take Back Program Case Studies......Page 278
Conclusion......Page 283
References......Page 284
Appendix A. Take Back Program Case Studies......Page 288
References......Page 295
Index......Page 297