Handbook of Waste Biorefinery: Circular Economy of Renewable Energy

✍ Scribed by Eduardo Jacob-Lopes, Leila Queiroz Zepka, Mariany Costa Deprá

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2022
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 1001
• Edition: 1
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This handbook discusses the latest developments in biorefinery technologies for waste-to-energy conversion. The growing global population and the accompanying increase in consumption and waste production make it urgent to find the best possible use of our resources. A sustainable waste management under the biorefinery concept has great potential to support a sustainable circular economy and green energy production.

This handbook is divided into four parts. First, the reader is introduced to the fundamentals and recent trends of waste-to-energy technologies. The second part describes in detail the current status, challenges, and potential of the different feedstocks used for waste-to-energy conversion. Here, municipal solid waste, sewage sludge, oils and greases generated during food preparation, industrial wastewaters, and agricultural wastes, to name a few, are introduced. 

In the third part, numerous waste-to-energy technologies are discussed in detail, including anaerobic digestion, composting, gasification, plasma technology, thermal cracking, and others. Advantages and optimization potentials of these technologies for efficient residue management, quality and yield are highlighted.

Finally, the handbook discusses social, environmental and economic aspects of waste-to-energy biorefinery technologies. Readers will learn more about the major bottlenecks and solutions in bioenergy commercialization, the logistics of biomass supply and the carbon footprint of waste biorefineries. The ideas and technologies presented in this book contribute to the UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) of "Affordable and Clean Energy".

This book is a useful reference for postgraduate students and researchers interested in biorefinery and biofuel technologies, both in academia- and commercial laboratories. Early career scientists can use it to fast track into the field. Advanced scientists will find it helpful in gaining a broader overview of the field beyond their area of specialization.

✦ Table of Contents

Preface
Contents
Part I: Fundamentals
Chapter 1: Principles, Concepts, and Recent Trends Applied to the Waste Biorefineries
1.1 Waste Biorefineries: Context, Principles, and Importance
1.2 Feedstocks, Platforms, Products, and Processes
1.2.1 Feedstocks: Dedicated Feedstocks and Residues/Waste
1.2.2 Biorefinery Processes
1.2.3 Biorefinery Platforms
1.2.4 Biorefinery General Products
1.3 Current Scenario, Challenges, and Future Trends
1.3.1 Challenges and Trends in Biorefining
1.3.1.1 Plant and Products Sustainability
1.3.1.1.1 Natural Resources Usage
1.3.1.1.2 Biomass Utilization
1.3.1.2 Business Model Sustainability
1.3.1.3 Current Waste Biorefineries
1.3.1.3.1 Large-Scale Project: BALI Biorefinery Demo, Borregaard AS
1.3.1.3.2 Small-Scale Project: Biokol, Stockholm Biochar Project
References
Chapter 2: Zero-Waste Biorefinery
2.1 Introduction
2.2 A Zero-Waste Biorefinery Concept
2.3 Current Biorefineries
2.3.1 First-Generation Biorefinery
2.3.2 Second-Generation Biorefinery
2.3.2.1 Second-Generation Biofuels
2.3.2.2 Hemicellulose-based Bioproducts
2.3.2.3 Lignin-based Bioproducts
2.3.2.4 Lignocellulosic Biomass-based Biochar
2.3.2.5 Crude Glycerol-based Products
2.3.3 Third-Generation Biorefinery
2.4 State of the Art
2.5 Limitations and Prospects of Zero-Waste Biorefinery
2.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Waste Biorefineries Facilities: The Feedstock Choice
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Waste Biorefineries
3.3 Waste Feedstocks
3.3.1 Agro-industrial Waste
3.3.2 Municipal Solid Waste
3.3.3 Food Waste
3.3.4 Oil-Based Wastes
3.3.5 Sewage Sludge
3.4 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 4: Emerging Pretreatment Technologies Applied to Waste Biorefinery
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Waste Generations and Waste Biorefineries
4.3 Biorefinery System Classifications
4.4 Pretreatment Technologies Applied for Waste Biomass
4.5 Emerging/Advanced Pretreatment Technologies Applied to Waste Biorefinery
4.5.1 Hydrothermal Liquefaction
4.5.2 Plasma Liquefaction
4.5.3 Pyrolysis
4.5.4 Gasification
4.5.5 Microwave Irradiation
4.5.6 Ionic Liquids (ILs)
4.5.7 Deep-Eutectic Solvents (DESs)
4.5.8 Ultrasound
4.5.9 Gamma Radiation
4.5.10 Electron Beam Radiation
4.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Waste Biomaterials Innovation Markets
5.1 Introduction
5.2 State of Art
5.2.1 Bioeconomy-Based Markets
5.2.2 Waste Bio-based Innovation Markets
5.2.2.1 Conceptual Assumptions to Draw a Waste Bioeconomy
5.2.2.2 Methodological Procedures
5.2.2.3 Waste Technological and Market Foresight Study
5.2.2.4 TT1: Waste´´ Pyrolysis and Combustion 5.2.2.5 TT2:Waste´´ Plasma-Based Technologies
5.2.2.6 TT3: Waste for Renewable Fuels, Wastewater and Biomass Treatment Through Biological Processes
5.3 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6: Step Forward on Waste Biorefineries: Technology Bottlenecks and Perspective on Commercialization
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Biorefinery Assessment
6.3 Waste Biorefinery Feedstocks
6.3.1 Agricultural Wastes
6.3.2 Wood Residues, Herbs, and Manures
6.3.3 Municipal Wastes
6.3.4 Industrial Wastes
6.3.5 Aquatic Organisms
6.4 Steps for the Application of Biorefinery
6.5 Bottlenecks of Waste Biorefineries: Current Status and New Accomplishments
6.6 Perspective on Business and Commercialization
6.7 Conclusions and Outlook
References
Part II: Feedstocks
Chapter 7: Strategies for Municipal Solid Waste: Functional Elements, Integrated Management, and Legislative Aspects
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Definition of Solid Waste
7.1.2 Sources of Solid Waste
7.2 Waste Generation and Quantity
7.3 Types and Composition of Solid Waste
7.3.1 Types of Solid Wastes
7.3.2 Composition of Solid Waste
7.4 Functional Elements of the Waste Management System
7.4.1 Onsite Handling and Storage
7.4.2 Waste Collection
7.4.3 Pneumatic Waste Conveyance System (PWCS)
7.4.4 Transfer Station
7.4.5 Waste Processing and Recovery
7.4.6 Final Disposal by Landfilling
7.4.6.1 Introduction
7.4.6.2 Landfills in the World
7.4.6.3 Categories of Landfill
7.4.6.4 Landfill Leachate and Its Treatment
7.4.6.5 Design, Operation, and Challenges for Landfilling
7.5 Integrated Solid Waste Management
7.6 Legislative Aspects of Solid Waste
7.7 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 8: Sewage Sludge Biochar
8.1 Introduction
8.2 State of the Art
8.2.1 Sewage Sludge in Agriculture: Benefits and Limitations
8.2.2 Pyrolysis as a Sustainable Alternative to Enable the Disposal of Sewage Sludge on Agricultural Soil
8.2.2.1 Chemical Characteristics of Sewage Sludge Biochar
8.2.2.2 Sewage Sludge Biochar as Soil Amendment
8.2.2.3 Sewage Sludge Biochar for Plant Disease Control
8.2.2.4 Biochar Enrichment
8.2.2.5 Sewage Sludge Biochar and Carbon Sequestration in the Soil
8.2.2.6 Sewage Sludge Biochar and the Risks of Contamination with Heavy Metals
8.3 Recommendations
References
Chapter 9: Recovery of Value-Added Products from Industrial Wastewaters: A Review to Potential Feedstocks
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Sugar and Ethanol Production Process and Its Wastewaters
9.2.1 Juice, Molasses, and Vinasse
9.2.1.1 Characterization of Juice and Molasses
9.2.1.2 Characterization of Vinasse
9.2.2 Environmental Compliance and Energy Production
9.2.2.1 Anaerobic Digestion of Vinasse
9.2.2.2 Anaerobic Digestion of Molasses and Juice
9.2.3 Value-Added Products
9.2.3.1 Production of Value-Added Products from Molasses and Juice
9.2.3.2 Production of Value-Added Products from Vinasse
9.3 Dairy Production Process and Its Wastewaters
9.3.1 Cheese Whey
9.3.2 Environmental Compliance and Energy Production
9.3.3 Value-Added Products
9.4 Biodiesel Production Process and Its Wastewaters
9.4.1 Glycerin
9.4.2 Environmental Compliance and Energy Production
9.4.2.1 Hydrogen Production
9.4.2.2 Methane Production
9.4.3 Value-Added Products
9.5 Cassava Processing and Its Wastewaters
9.5.1 Cassava Wastewater
9.5.2 Environmental Compliance and Energy Production
9.5.3 Value-Added Products
9.6 Circular Economy Based on Wastewaters
References
Chapter 10: Fats, Oils, and Grease (FOG): Opportunities, Challenges, and Economic Approaches
10.1 Fats, Oils, and Grease
10.1.1 Opportunities
10.1.2 Sources
10.1.3 Challenges
10.1.4 Handling and Disposal
10.2 Reuse Options
10.2.1 Anaerobic Co-digestion
10.2.1.1 Opportunities
10.2.1.2 FOG Degradation
10.2.1.3 Challenges
10.2.1.4 Solutions
10.2.2 Biodiesel Production
10.2.2.1 Opportunities
10.2.2.2 Transesterification Mechanism
10.2.2.3 Challenges
10.2.2.4 Solutions
10.2.3 Other Applications
10.2.3.1 Composting
10.2.3.2 Land Application
10.3 Microbial Conversion of FOG Waste
10.4 Economic Implications for a Circular Economy
References
Chapter 11: Food Waste Biorefineries: Developments, Current Advances and Future Outlook
11.1 Introduction
11.2 State-of-the-Art and Developments
11.2.1 Anaerobic Digestion
11.2.2 Extraction and Separation
11.2.2.1 Mechanical Extraction
11.2.2.2 Solvent Extraction
11.2.2.3 Sub- and Supercritical Fluids
11.2.2.4 Distillation
11.2.3 Thermal and Microwave Treatments
11.2.3.1 Pyrolysis
11.2.3.2 Hydrothermal
11.2.4 Combining Techniques
11.3 Outlook
11.4 Image Credits
References
Chapter 12: The Role of Livestock Wastes in Clean Energy: A Mapping in Germany´s Potential Installations
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Role of the Livestock Industry in Waste Generation
12.3 Livestock Residue as for Resources for Clean Energy Production
12.4 Mapping Germanies Biogas Reactors
12.5 KDE Heatmap
12.6 K-Means Cluster
12.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13: Agricultural Waste-Derived Management for Bioenergy: A Paradigm Shift in the Waste Perceptions
13.1 General Waste Management
13.1.1 Waste Management Practices
13.1.2 Climate Change and Waste Management
13.2 Waste Conversion Technologies
13.2.1 Incineration
13.2.2 Gasification
13.2.3 Pyrolysis
13.2.4 Anaerobic Digestion
13.2.5 Hydrothermal Liquefaction
13.2.6 Torrefaction
13.3 Applications of Waste-to-Energy
13.3.1 Electricity Production
13.3.2 Biohydrogen Production
13.3.3 Ethanol Production
13.3.4 Packaging Applications
13.3.5 Adsorption Agents
13.3.6 Fertiliser and Carotene Production
13.3.7 The Multiple Applications of Rice Husk/Rice Husk Ash
13.4 Advances in Waste-to-Energy Conversion Technologies
13.4.1 Biological Hydrogen Production
13.4.2 Dark Fermentation
13.4.3 Bioelectrochemical Process
13.4.3.1 Microbial Fuel Cell
13.4.3.2 Microbial Electrolysis Cells
13.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Forestry Wastes: Technical Concepts, Economic Circularity, and Sustainability Approaches
14.1 Insights on Forestry Residues
14.1.1 Classification for Forestry Residues
14.1.2 Chemical Characteristics of Forestry Residues
14.2 Pre-Treatments Applied to Forestry Residues
14.3 Composite Materials from Forestry Residues
14.3.1 Wood Plastic Composites (WPC)
14.3.2 Polyurethane Foams
14.3.3 Cement Composites
14.4 Fuels from Forestry Residues
14.4.1 Primary Fuels from Forestry Residues
14.4.2 Biofuels Produced from Forestry Residues by Densification
14.4.3 Biofuels Produced from Forestry Residues by Pyrolysis
14.4.4 Biofuels Produced from Forestry Residues by Gasification
14.4.5 Production of Ethanol from Syngas
14.4.6 Biofuels Produced from Forestry Residues by Fermentation Hydrolysis
14.5 Main Valuable Products Derived from Forestry Residues
14.5.1 Sugar Alcohols
14.5.2 Films
14.5.3 Biosorbents
14.5.4 Furans
14.6 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 15: Panoramic View about Microalgae Biomass as Waste-to-Energy: A Biorefinery Concept
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Biorefinery of Microalgae
15.2.1 Lipids Fraction
15.2.2 Carbohydrate Fraction
15.2.3 Protein Fraction
15.3 Microalgae Biomass Conversion Technologies
15.3.1 Thermochemical Conversion
15.3.1.1 Gasification
15.3.1.2 Liquefaction
15.3.1.3 Pyrolysis
15.3.1.4 Direct Combustion
15.3.2 Chemical Conversion
15.3.2.1 Transesterification
15.3.3 Biochemical Conversion
15.3.3.1 Anaerobic Digestion
15.3.3.2 Production of Bioethanol
15.3.3.3 Production of Biohydrogen
15.4 Potential Products from Microalgal Biomass
15.4.1 Lipids and Oil
15.4.2 Biodiesel
15.4.3 Drop-in Fuels
15.4.4 Bio-Oil and Bio-Char
15.4.5 Heat and Power
15.4.6 Carbohydrates
15.4.7 Proteins
15.4.8 Pigments
15.4.9 Biogas
15.5 Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) and Techno-economic Analysis
15.5.1 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
15.5.2 Techno-economic Analysis (TEA)
15.6 Challenges and Future Prospects
15.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Yeast Biomass: A By-Product for Application in the Food, Energy, Plastics, and Pharmaceutical Industries
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Yeast Biomass and Brewery
16.3 Yeast Biomass Production
16.3.1 Active Dry Yeast and Application
16.3.2 Yeast Starters in Wine, Beer, and Baker Industries
16.4 Yeasts as a Source of Lipid for Biodiesel Production
16.5 S. cerevisiae as an Attractive Cell Factory for Novel Applications
16.5.1 Production of Organic Acids: 3-Hydroxypropionic, Succinic, Levulinic, and Lactic Acids
16.5.1.1 3-Hydroxypropionic Acid
16.5.1.2 Succinic Acid
16.5.1.3 Levulinic Acid
16.5.1.4 Lactic Acid
16.5.2 Sugar Alcohol
16.5.2.1 Sorbitol
16.5.2.2 Xylitol
16.6 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 17: Enzymes Applied to Lignocellulosic Biorefinery
17.1 Overview
17.2 Lignocellulosic Biomasses as a Raw Material with High Value-Added
17.3 Biocatalysis of Lignocellulosic Structures
17.3.1 Cellulose
17.3.2 Hemicellulose
17.3.3 Lignin
17.4 Perspectives and Insights
References
Part III: Waste to Energy-Food-Feed-Chemical-Material Technologies (WtEFFCM-Tech)
Chapter 18: Waste to Chemicals
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Waste-Types and Source
18.2.1 Food Waste
18.2.2 Agricultural Waste
18.3 Waste to Value Added Products
18.3.1 Waste to Energy
18.3.1.1 Hydro Thermal Liquefaction (HTL)
18.3.1.2 Pyrolysis
18.3.1.3 Anaerobic Digestion
18.3.2 Waste to Feed
18.3.2.1 Waste as Animal Feed
18.3.2.2 Waste as Fish Feed
18.3.3 Waste to Platform Chemicals: Types and Economics
18.3.3.1 Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF)
18.3.3.2 Lactic Acid
18.3.3.3 Sorbitol
18.3.3.4 Succinic Acid
18.3.4 Waste to Biomaterials
18.3.4.1 Biopolymers
18.3.4.2 Waste Biomass as Lignocellulosic Feedstock
18.3.4.3 Agro-industrial and Forestry Wastes for Agglomerated Materials
18.4 Platform Chemicals Synthesis Process
18.4.1 HMF
18.4.2 Lactic Acid
18.4.3 Succinic Acid
18.4.4 Sorbitol
18.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 19: Fundamentals for Waste-to-Energy from Anaerobic Digestion Technologies: An Overview
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Biochemical Mechanism of AD
19.2.1 Hydrolysis
19.2.2 Acidogenesis
19.2.3 Acetogenesis
19.2.4 Methanogenesis
19.3 Classifications of AD
19.3.1 Digester Feeding Type
19.3.2 Wet or Dry Digestion
19.3.3 Single- or Multiple-Stage AD
19.4 Parameters Affecting AD Performance
19.4.1 Biomass Characterisation
19.4.1.1 Nutrient Composition
19.4.1.2 pH and VFA
19.4.1.3 Carbon to Nitrogen (C/N) Ratio
19.4.1.4 Free Ammonia-Nitrogen (FAN) Content
19.4.2 Digester Operational Configuration
19.4.2.1 Temperature
19.4.2.2 Retention Time
19.4.2.3 Organic Loading Rate (OLR)
19.5 Opportunities to Improve AD Process
19.5.1 Pre-treatment Technologies
19.5.1.1 Physical Pre-treatment
19.5.1.1.1 Mechanical Pre-treatment
19.5.1.1.2 Ultrasonication
19.5.1.1.3 Microwave Irradiation
19.5.1.2 Thermal Pre-treatment
19.5.1.2.1 Heating Pre-treatment
19.5.1.2.2 Freeze-Thawing Pre-treatment
19.5.1.3 Chemical Pre-treatment
19.5.1.3.1 Alkaline Pre-treatment
19.5.1.3.2 Acid Pre-treatment
19.5.1.3.3 Oxidative Pre-treatment
19.5.1.3.4 Ozonation
19.5.1.4 Biological Pre-treatment
19.5.1.5 Physicochemical Pre-treatment Methods
19.5.1.5.1 Steam Explosion
19.5.1.5.2 Hydrothermal Pre-treatment
19.5.1.5.3 Ammonia Fibre Expansion Pre-treatment
19.5.2 Co-digestion
19.5.3 Conductive Materials
19.5.3.1 Mechanism of Conductive Materials: Direct Interspecies Electron Transfer (DIET)
19.5.3.1.1 Activated Carbon (AC)
19.5.3.1.2 Biochar
19.5.3.1.3 Neutral Red
19.6 Economics of AD Systems
19.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 20: Composting Technologies for Biowastes: Environmental and Techno-Economic Feasibilities under Biorefinery Concepts
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Underlying Principles of BW Biorefineries
20.3 Biochemical Conversion Platform
20.4 Composting Integration Aspects
20.4.1 Composting of Downstream Residues
20.4.2 Composting Heat Energy Harvesting
20.4.3 Compost Value-Added Products
20.4.4 Environmental and Techno-Economic Feasibilities
20.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 21: Vermicomposting Technology: A Sustainable Option for Waste Beneficiation
21.1 Introduction
21.2 The Science of Vermicomposting and Earthworms
21.3 Current State of Research on Vermicomposting
21.4 Vermicomposts on Plant Growth
21.5 Vermicomposts on Degraded Soil Physical Properties
21.6 Vermi-Leachate
21.7 Vermicomposting in Wastewater Treatment
21.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 22: Land Application of Organic Waste Compost
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Advantages of Organic Waste Compost Application in Farmland
22.2.1 Advantages of Organic Waste Compost in Soil
22.2.1.1 Enhancement of Soil Nutrients
22.2.1.2 Improvement of Soil Biological Activity
22.2.2 Advantages of Organic Waste Compost in Plant
22.2.2.1 Improvement of Crop Yields
22.2.2.2 Improvement of Crop Quality
22.2.2.3 Promotion of Crop Root Development
22.3 Principles and Methods of Applying Organic Fertilizer to Crops
22.3.1 Wheat
22.3.2 Corn
22.3.3 Rice
22.4 Principles and Methods of Applying Organic Fertilizer to Fruits
22.4.1 Apple
22.4.2 Pear
22.4.3 Orange
22.5 Principles and Methods of Applying Organic Fertilizer to Vegetables
22.5.1 Tomato
22.5.2 Potato
22.5.3 Bean
22.5.4 Cabbage
22.6 Principles and Methods of Applying Organic Fertilizer to Tea
22.6.1 Principles of Applying Organic Fertilizer to Tea
22.6.2 Methods of Applying Organic Fertilizer to Tea
22.7 Challenges and Perspectives
22.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 23: Thermal Cracking Processes Up-to-dateness for Oil Vacuum Residual and Bio-Raw Materials: A Perspective for Municip...
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Thermal Cracking Processes
23.2.1 Visbreaking
23.2.1.1 Deep Thermal Conversion Process
23.2.1.2 High Conversion Soaker Cracking (HSC) Process
23.2.1.3 Gasification
23.2.2 Coking Processes
23.2.2.1 Periodic Coking
23.2.2.2 Delayed Coking
23.2.2.3 Continuous Coking
23.2.3 Thermal Processes for the Processing of Solid Waste
23.3 Conclusions
References
Chapter 24: Chemistry to Technology of Gasification Process: A Close Look into Reactions and Kinetic Models
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Biomass Feedstock and Its Pre-Treatment
24.3 Gasification Process Chemistry and Technology
24.3.1 Drying
24.3.2 Oxidation
24.3.3 Pyrolysis
24.4 Types of Pyrolysis
24.4.1 Slow Pyrolysis
24.4.2 Fast Pyrolysis
24.4.3 Reduction
24.4.4 Catalytic Reforming of Tar
24.5 Key Operating Parameters
24.5.1 Particle Size of Biomass
24.5.2 Temperature
24.5.3 Steam Flow Rate (Steam to Biomass Ratio, S/B)
24.5.4 Gasifying Agents
24.5.5 Equivalence Ratio
24.6 Design of the Gasifier
24.6.1 Feed/Air Flow Direction
24.6.2 Fixed Bed Gasifier
24.6.3 Fluidized Bed Gasifier
24.6.4 Entrained Flow Reactor
24.6.5 Rotary Kiln Reactor
24.6.6 Plasma Technology
24.7 Syngas Cleaning
24.8 Methods for Removal of Contaminants
24.8.1 Physical Gas Cleaning or Cold Gas Method
24.8.2 Hot Gas Cleanup
24.9 Treatment of Various Contaminants
24.9.1 Tars
24.9.2 Nitrogen
24.9.3 Sulfur
24.9.4 Halides
24.9.5 Trace Metals
24.10 Challenges in Syngas Cleaning
24.11 Mathematical Modeling and Simulation of Gasifiers
24.11.1 Thermodynamic Equilibrium Model
24.11.2 Stoichiometric Equilibrium Models
24.11.3 Non Stoichiometric Equilibrium Model
24.11.4 Kinetic Model
24.11.5 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Models
24.11.6 Artificial Neural Network (ANN)
24.12 Present Challenges in Bio-Gasification and Path Forward
24.13 Conclusions
References
Chapter 25: Open Burning Application to Municipal Solid Waste: Quantification Methods, Emission Inventories, and Uncertainty D...
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Systems for Solid Waste Management
25.3 Methods to Estimate MSW Open Burning
25.3.1 Municipal Solid Waste Generation
25.3.2 Estimation of the Waste Combustible Fraction
25.3.3 Estimation of the Fraction of Population Burning MSW
25.3.4 Estimation of the Fraction of MSW Burning at Disposal Sites
25.3.5 Emission Factors
25.3.6 Calculation
25.3.6.1 Solid Waste Open Burning at Source
25.3.6.2 Solid Waste Open Burning at Disposal Site
25.3.6.3 Estimation of Emissions from MSW Open Burning
25.4 Factors that Determines Uncertainties of MSW Open Burning
25.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 26: Overview of Torrefaction Technologies: A Path Getaway for Waste-to-Energy
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Principle of Torrefaction
26.2.1 Dry Torrefaction
26.2.2 Wet Torrefaction
26.2.3 Ionic-Liquid-Assisted Torrefaction
26.3 Easy of Size Reduction Before and After Torrefaction
26.4 Characterisation Before, During and After Torrefaction
26.4.1 Physical (Morphological) Characterisation
26.4.2 Chemical Characterisation
26.4.3 Thermal Degradation
26.4.4 Fuel Characterisation
26.5 Different Measures of Torrefaction Efficiency
26.6 Torrefaction Reactors
26.6.1 Directly Heated Reactors
26.6.1.1 Compact Moving Bed Reactor
26.6.1.2 Fluidised Bed Reactor
26.6.1.3 Oscillating Bed Reactor
26.6.1.4 Multiple Hearth Reactor
26.6.1.5 Hydrothermal Reactor
26.6.2 Indirectly Hearted Reactors
26.6.2.1 Fixed Bed Reactor
26.6.2.2 Rotary Drum Reactor
26.6.2.3 Screw Conveyor Reactor
26.6.2.4 Microwave Reactor
26.7 Non-Power Applications of Torrefied Biomass
26.8 Kinetics of Torrefaction Process
26.9 Summary of the Chapter
References
Chapter 27: Hydrothermal Carbonisation of Waste Biomass: Current Limitations, Strategic Success and Market Position Analysis
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Process and Technology Developments
27.2.1 Hydrothermal Carbonisation: Process
27.2.2 Feedstock
27.2.3 Products
27.2.4 Solid-Form Product: Hydrochar
27.2.5 Methods for Hydrochar Analysis
27.2.6 Liquid Product: Process Water
27.2.7 Gaseous Products
27.2.8 Process Limitations and Challenges
27.3 Process Conditions and Reaction Mechanisms
27.3.1 Effect of Process Conditions on Hydrochar Properties
27.3.2 Temperature
27.3.3 Time
27.3.4 Initial Solid Biomass to Water Ratio
27.3.5 Acidic Conditions/Catalyst
27.3.6 Reaction Mechanisms
27.4 Circular Economy: Products from Waste
27.4.1 Applications of Hydrochar
27.4.2 Solid Biofuel
27.4.3 Soil Amendment
27.4.4 Activation for Adsorption
27.4.5 Activation for Electrode Material
27.4.6 Catalyst
27.4.7 Process Water Applications
27.5 Limitations in the Field
27.5.1 Capital and Operational Costs
27.5.2 Knowledge Surrounding HTC and the Different Applications of Its Products
27.5.3 Economically Viability of HTC and Hydrochar
27.5.4 Competing with Other Technologies and Products
27.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 28: A Comprehensive Outlook to Hydrothermal Liquefaction Technology: Economic and Environmental Benefits
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL)
28.2.1 The HTL Process
28.2.2 Biochemical Compounds in Biomass
28.2.2.1 Lipids
28.2.2.2 Proteins
28.2.2.3 Carbohydrates
28.2.3 Reactions on the HTL Process
28.2.3.1 Processes at Meso-Micro Scale
28.2.3.2 Chemical Reactions in the HTL Process
28.2.3.2.1 Lipids
28.2.3.2.2 Proteins
28.2.3.2.3 Carbohydrates
Simple Saccharides
Polysaccharides
Starch
28.2.3.2.4 Bio-Compound Mixtures
28.2.4 Kinetic Modeling of HTL
28.3 Effect of the Feedstock on the Production of Bio-Oil
28.3.1 Advantages of Microalgae for Biofuel Production
28.3.1.1 Microalgae Cultivation
28.3.2 Influence of the Operation Variables in the HTL Process
28.3.2.1 Temperature Effect
28.3.2.2 Pressure Effect
28.3.2.3 Solvent Effect
28.3.2.4 Effect of the Solvent/Biomass Ratio
28.3.2.5 Use of Catalysts in HTL
28.3.2.5.1 Homogeneous Catalysts
28.3.2.5.2 Heterogeneous Catalysts
28.4 The HTL Process in the Circular Economy
28.4.1 HTL of Microalgae Used for Water Treatment
28.4.1.1 Use of Microalgae for Water Treatment
28.4.1.2 HTL Process with Microalgae Used in Water Treatment
28.4.2 Other Feedstocks to the HTL Process
28.4.2.1 Processing of Sludge from Wastewater Treatment by HTL
28.4.2.2 Woody Biomass
28.5 Biocrude Processing
28.5.1 General Aspects
28.5.2 Transformation from Bio-Oil to Bio-jet Fuel
28.5.3 Co-Processing of Biocrude with Fossil Crude in a Refinery
28.6 Life Cycle Assessment of HTL
28.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 29: Landfill Gas Utilization
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Impurities Removal Methods for Improved LFG Utilization
29.3 LFG to Energy Technologies
29.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 30: Plasma Technology in Waste-to-Energy Valorization: Fundamentals, Current Status, and Future Directions
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Definition of Plasma
30.3 Thermal Plasma: Fundamentals, Concept, and Mechanism of Gasification
30.4 Plasma Operating Parameters
30.4.1 Plasma Reactor
30.4.2 Reactor Design
30.4.3 Gasifier Reaction Temperature and Residence Time
30.4.4 Gas, Oxidant, and Steam Streams Requirements
30.5 Municipal Solid Waste Treatments and Value Added by Plasma Technology
30.5.1 Plastic Waste
30.5.2 Food Wastes
30.5.3 Electronic Waste
30.6 Plasma Gasification Technology Challenges
30.6.1 Fundamental Process Understanding
30.6.2 Operational Cost
30.6.3 Commercialization
30.6.4 Community Readiness Level
30.6.5 Energy Intensive Process
30.6.6 Waste Sorting Difficulties
30.7 Conclusion
References
Part IV: Criteria for Policy, Environmental, Social, Intellectual Property, Economic Aspects, and Scalability
Chapter 31: Strategy and Design of Innovation Policy Road Mapping for Waste Biorefineries
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Effect of COVID-19 on Global Projections
31.3 Biomass Usage in History
31.4 Biomass Composition
31.5 Biochemicals and Biomaterials
31.5.1 Biomaterials
31.5.1.1 Biofibers and Biocomposites
31.5.1.2 Bioplastics
31.5.2 Biochemicals
31.5.2.1 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF)
31.5.2.2 Levulinic Acid
31.5.2.3 Furfural
31.5.2.4 Succinic Acid
31.5.2.5 Lactic Acid
31.6 Biorefinery Concept Gone Wrong: Case Study
31.7 Bioenergy and Biofuel Policies across the Globe
31.7.1 Germany
31.7.2 USA
31.7.3 Canada
31.7.4 Mexico
31.7.5 Australia
31.7.6 China
31.7.7 Sweden and Finland
31.7.8 Japan
31.7.9 Brazil
31.7.10 India
31.8 Future Challenges and Prospective
References
Chapter 32: Sustainability Metrics on Waste Biorefineries
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Potential Feedstocks under Waste Biorefineries Context
32.2.1 Agricultural Waste
32.2.2 Forest Waste
32.2.3 Food Waste
32.2.4 Municipal Waste
32.3 Life Cycle Assessment Standard on Waste Biorefineries
32.4 Beyond Sustainability: Circular Bioeconomy and Carbon Credits
32.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 33: Exergy Analysis of Waste Biorefineries
33.1 Introduction
33.1.1 Energy, Entropy, and Exergy
33.1.2 Exergy Calculations
33.1.3 Exergy Efficiency and Exergy Destruction
33.1.4 Exergy Analysis of Waste Biorefineries: Current State
33.1.5 Chemical Exergy Analysis of Wastes Refineries: System Boundary and Functional Unit
33.1.5.1 Chemical Exergy Analysis of POMEs Anaerobic Digestion
33.1.5.2 Biodiesel from Waste Oil: Chemical Exergy Analysis of Transesterification Reactor
References
Chapter 34: Social Circular Economy Indicators Applied to Wastage Biorefineries
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Social Life Cycle Assessment
34.3 Social Circular Economy Indicators
34.4 Social Impacts in Waste Biorefineries
34.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 35: How to Realize an Urban Circular Bioeconomy
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Background and State of the Art
35.3 Disruptive Technological Approaches
35.4 Examples
35.4.1 Phosphate Recycling from Sewage Sludge
35.4.2 Producing Methanol from Bio-methane and Hydrogen
35.4.3 Producing Chemicals from Bio-methane and CO2
35.4.4 Novel Routes to Polymer Production Based on Glycans
35.4.5 The Green Waste Biorefinery
35.4.6 The Bioeconomy of Waste Biorefineries: Insects
35.5 Discussion
35.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 36: Innovation Management on Waste Biorefineries
36.1 The Current Environmental Context and Key Determinant Factors of Biorefineries
36.1.1 The Paradigm Shift from Linear Toward a Sustainable Circular and Bioeconomy
36.1.2 Biorefining as a Technological Advancement and Key Driver of a Circular Bioeconomy
36.2 Waste Biorefineries
36.2.1 Environmental Analysis of Waste Biorefineries
36.2.2 Biorefinery Waste Technological and Economic Analysis
36.2.3 The Role of Technology and Innovation Management in Waste Biorefineries
36.2.4 Environmental Benefits of Other Biorefinery Products
36.3 Biodiversity and Land Use Change
36.4 Impacts of COVID-19 Outbreak
36.4.1 New Age Innovations and Disruptions
36.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 37: Incentivising Circular and Sustainable Innovations Through Patent Law
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Intellectual Property Law and Sustainability: An Overview
37.2.1 Patents and Biorefineries-Related Innovations: Conditions for Patentability as an Incentive for Sustainable Innovations
37.2.1.1 The European Patent Framework: Some Starting Points
37.2.1.2 Patentability Requirements: Perspectives from the European Framework
37.3 Incentivising `Sustainable´ Innovations via IPR: How to Strike a Balance in Patent Law?
37.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 38: Industrial Economy and Technological Management in the Context of Waste Biorefineries
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Where and How OR and AI Can Come into Play
38.3 Case Study: Logistics Planning for Feedstock
38.3.1 Input and Problem Definition
38.3.2 Vehicle Routing Process and Optimisation Model
38.3.3 Clustering for Dispatching
38.3.4 Results and Analysis
38.4 Concluding Remarks and Open Issues
References
Chapter 39: Techno-economic Aspects and Circular Economy of Waste Biorefineries
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Policy and Issues Associated with Biorefinery
39.3 The Biomass Supply Chain in the Philippines
39.4 Green Chemistry and Biowaste Valorization
39.5 Challenges in the Techno-economic Aspects of Biorefinery in the Philippines
39.6 Economic Implications of the Competing Demands for Food and Bioenergy
39.7 Conclusion
References
Chapter 40: Unlocking the Global Potential of Waste Biorefining: Scaling Up or Scaling Down?
40.1 Background: Waste Biorefining as a Potential Means of Circular Bioeconomy
40.2 Waste Biorefinery Upstream: Waste Streams and Their Potential as Biorefinery Feedstocks
40.3 Waste Biorefinery Midstream: Factors Affecting the Large-Scale Technical Feasibility of Waste Biorefineries
40.3.1 Technology Readiness and Availability
40.3.2 Comparative Advantages of Urban Centers and Associated Waste Streams, Agri-food Industries, and Agroforestry Activities
40.3.3 Scale at Which the Supply and Demand of the Waste Meet
40.4 Waste Biorefinery Downstream: Creating Markets to Ensure Financial Viability of Biorefinery Products at Scale
40.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 41: Development and Scale-Up of Waste Biorefineries Systems: Lactic Acid as a Case Study
41.1 Introduction
41.2 Bioprocess Upstream-Industrial Strains Development
41.3 Bioprocess Midstream-Fermentation
41.4 Bioprocess Downstream-Separations and Purification
41.4.1 Precipitation
41.4.2 Membrane Process Separation
41.5 Sustainability Assessment
41.5.1 Assessing the Economic Sustainability (Techno-economic Analysis)
41.5.1.1 Capital Cost (CAPEX)
41.5.1.2 Operational Cost
41.5.2 Assessing the Environmental Sustainability
41.5.3 Managing Risks
References