Handbook of Sensor Networks: Compact Wireless and Wired Sensing Systems

✍ Scribed by Alain C. Diebold

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2004
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 775
• Edition: 1
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

As the field of communications networks continues to evolve, the challenging area of wireless sensor networks is rapidly coming of age. Recent advances have made it possible to make sensor components more compact, robust, and energy efficient than ever, earning the idiosyncratic alias of “Smart Dust.” Production has also improved, yielding larger, more cost-efficient quantities for specialized telecommunications applications. However, network designers and planners for emerging telecommunication networks face specific challenges in finding the best way to integrate new network-specific circuits with existing network systems.

The Handbook of Sensor Networks: Compact Wireless and Wired Sensing Systems captures the current state of sensor networks and deals with particular technical challenges such as software protocols, data processing, security, and limited power sources for remote sensors. Other topics include architecture, artificial perception, location management, dynamic power management, data funneling, and applications such as tracking, biological data acquisition, industrial sensor networking, security measures, and energy-saving techniques.

A selection of highly respected professionals and researchers from leading institutions worldwide contribute their expertise to assemble a referential set of 40 brand new, in-depth articles that cover various aspects of sensor networks, from basic concepts to research-grade material, including future directions.

✦ Table of Contents

Handbook of Sensor Networks: Compact Wireless and Wired Sensing Systems......Page 1
Preface......Page 4
Editors......Page 6
Contributors......Page 7
Contents......Page 11
1.1 Introduction......Page 21
1.2.2.1 General Engineering......Page 22
1.2.2.4 Military Applications......Page 23
1.3 Technical Challenges......Page 24
1.3.2 Power Supply......Page 25
1.3.4 Capacity/Throughput......Page 26
1.3.6 Channel Access and Scheduling......Page 27
1.3.7.1 Wireless Link......Page 28
1.3.7.2 Energy Consumption......Page 29
1.3.9 Quality of Service......Page 30
1.4 Concluding Remarks......Page 31
References......Page 32
2.1 Introduction......Page 35
2.1.1 Geolocation and Identification of Mobile Targets......Page 36
2.1.2 Long-Term Architecture......Page 37
2.2 Goals for Real-Time Distributed Network Computing for Sensor Data Fusion......Page 39
2.3.1.1 Terrestrial Networks......Page 40
2.3.1.2 Wireless Networks......Page 41
2.3.3 Guaranteeing Computational Resources......Page 42
2.3.3.1 Avoiding Processor Interruption......Page 43
2.3.3.2 Working through System Faults......Page 44
2.5 Network Resource Management......Page 45
2.5.1 Graph Generator......Page 46
2.5.2 Metrics Object......Page 47
2.5.3 Graph Search......Page 48
2.5.7 Topology Database......Page 49
2.6 Experimental Results......Page 50
References......Page 53
3.1 Introduction......Page 56
3.2 Management Challenges......Page 57
3.3 Management Dimensions......Page 58
3.3.1 Dimensions for WSN Management......Page 59
3.3.2.2 Service Management......Page 60
3.3.2.3 Network Management......Page 61
3.3.2.5 Network Element......Page 62
3.3.3.1 Configuration......Page 63
3.3.3.2 Sensing......Page 64
3.3.3.4 Communication......Page 65
3.3.3.5 Maintenance......Page 66
3.3.4.1 Configuration Management......Page 67
3.3.4.3 Performance Management......Page 68
3.3.4.5 Accounting Management......Page 69
3.4.1 Management Services, Functions, and Models......Page 70
3.4.2.2 WSN Agents......Page 72
3.4.2.3 Management Application......Page 74
3.4.3.1 Static Information......Page 76
3.4.3.2 Dynamic Information......Page 78
3.4.4 Physical Architecture......Page 79
3.6 Conclusion......Page 80
References......Page 81
4.1 Introduction......Page 84
4.3 Aspects of Efficient Sensor Network Applications......Page 85
4.4 Need for Sensor Network Programmability......Page 86
4.5.2 Active Sensor Model......Page 87
4.5.3 Active Networks - Mobile Agents......Page 88
4.6.1 Directed Diffusion with In-Network Processing......Page 89
4.6.4 SQTL......Page 90
4.6.5 Smart Messages - Spatial Programming......Page 91
4.6.7 SensorWare......Page 92
4.6.9 DFuse......Page 94
References......Page 95
5.1 Introduction......Page 97
5.2.1 Micromachine Fabrication Techniques......Page 98
5.2.2 Highly Integrated Processes......Page 99
5.3.1 Selection Criteria......Page 100
5.4.1 RF Communication......Page 101
5.4.2 Optical Communication......Page 104
5.5.1 Energy Storage......Page 106
5.6 Packaging......Page 108
5.7 Systems......Page 109
5.8 Conclusion......Page 111
References......Page 112
6.1 Introduction......Page 116
6.1.1 Motivation and Design Issues in WSN Routing......Page 118
6.1.2 Routing Challenges in WSNs......Page 119
6.2.1.1 Sequential Assignment Routing (SAR)......Page 121
6.2.1.2 Directed Diffusion......Page 122
6.2.1.4 Coherent and Noncoherent Processing......Page 125
6.2.2.1 LEACH Protocol......Page 126
6.2.2.3 Threshold-Sensitive Energy-Efficient Protocols (TEEN and APTEEN)......Page 128
6.2.2.5 Fixed-Size Cluster Routing......Page 130
6.2.2.6 Virtual Grid Architecture Routing......Page 131
6.2.2.7 Hierarchical Power-Aware Routing......Page 132
6.2.3 Adaptive Routing......Page 133
6.2.4 Multipath Routing......Page 135
6.3 Routing in WSNs: Future Directions......Page 136
6.4 Conclusions......Page 137
References......Page 138
7.1 Introduction......Page 140
7.2 Background......Page 141
7.3.1 Sensor Fusion......Page 142
7.3.2 Time Concept......Page 143
7.3.5 Passive and Active Perception......Page 145
7.3.7 Human-Computer Interaction......Page 146
7.4.1 Electronic Head......Page 147
7.4.2 Fire Indication Application......Page 150
References......Page 151
8.2 Sensor Network Applications......Page 153
8.2.2 Tasking Applications......Page 154
8.3 Functional Architecture for Sensor Networks......Page 155
8.4.1 SINA (Sensor Information Networking Architecture)......Page 156
8.4.1.2 Information Gathering Methods......Page 157
8.4.1.3 Sensor Network Programming Languages......Page 158
8.4.1.4 SEE (Sensor Execution Environment)......Page 159
8.4.1.5 Architectural View of SINA......Page 160
8.4.2.1 TopDisc Mechanism......Page 161
8.4.2.2 Architectural View of TopDisc......Page 163
References......Page 164
9.1 Introduction......Page 166
9.2.1 Military Applications......Page 167
9.2.2 Environment Detection and Monitoring......Page 168
9.2.4 Medical Care......Page 169
9.2.7 Interactive Surroundings......Page 170
9.3 Classification of WSNs......Page 171
9.4.1 Characteristics......Page 172
9.4.2 Technical Challenges and Requirements......Page 173
9.4.3 Design Objectives and Directions......Page 174
9.5.1.1 Cheap, Compact, Low-Power Wireless Sensor Nodes......Page 176
9.5.1.2 Low Duty Cycle Electronics......Page 177
9.5.2.1 Sensor Deployment Strategies......Page 178
9.5.2.2 Dynamic Power Optimization at the Nodal Level......Page 179
9.5.2.3.2 Clustering and Hierarchical Architectures......Page 181
9.5.2.3.4 Collaborative Signal and Information Processing (CSIP) and Data Aggregation......Page 184
9.5.3 Software Development......Page 185
9.5.3.3 Application Programming Interface (API)......Page 186
9.6 Conclusions and Considerations for Future Research......Page 187
References......Page 188
10.1 Introduction......Page 194
10.2 Industrial Sensor Fitting Communication Protocols......Page 195
10.2.2 ASI......Page 196
10.2.4 Measurement Bus......Page 197
10.2.5 Controller Area Network (CAN)......Page 198
10.2.6 LonWorks......Page 199
10.2.8 Bitbus (Updated as IEEE 1118)......Page 200
10.2.9 Foundation Fieldbus......Page 201
10.2.11 Profibus PA......Page 202
10.2.12 Microwire......Page 203
10.3.2 IEEE 1451.2......Page 204
10.3.4 IEEE P1451.4......Page 205
10.4.2 IEEE 1451.1 Networking......Page 206
10.4.4 Internet Coupling Architectures......Page 207
10.5 Industrial Network Interconnections......Page 208
10.5.2 Actuator-Sensor-Interface Standard......Page 209
10.5.3 Nine-Bit Interprocessor Protocol......Page 210
10.5.3.2 ASIÒASI Coupler: Fragmenting Gateway......Page 211
10.5.3.3 BitbusÒNBIP Coupler: Router......Page 212
10.5.3.4 BitbusÒNBIP Coupler: Bridge......Page 213
10.6.1 Problem Definition......Page 214
10.6.4 Communication Maintenance......Page 215
10.6.5 Network Routing......Page 216
Acknowledgments......Page 217
References......Page 218
11.1 Introduction......Page 219
11.2 Tagging Whales......Page 220
11.3 The Tag Sensors......Page 221
11.4 The SWIM Networks......Page 224
11.5 The Information Propagation Model......Page 225
11.6 Simulating the Delay......Page 227
11.7 Calculating Storage Requirements......Page 230
11.7.1 Single-Packet Storage Methods......Page 231
11.7.2 Multiple-Packet Storage Methods......Page 232
References......Page 235
12.2 Motivation and Objectives......Page 236
12.3 SNs - Global View and Requirements......Page 238
12.4.2 Storage......Page 239
12.4.4 Sensors......Page 240
12.4.5 Radio......Page 241
12.5.1 Berkeley Mote Node......Page 243
12.5.2 UCLA Medusa MK-2 Node......Page 244
12.5.4 Sensor-Centric Design: Light Compass......Page 246
12.6 Wireless SNs as Embedded Systems......Page 248
Acknowledgment......Page 251
References......Page 252
13.1 Introduction......Page 255
13.2.1 Cost-Effectiveness......Page 257
13.2.3 Scalability......Page 258
13.3.1 Small Sensor Nodes......Page 259
13.3.2 Large Sensor Nodes......Page 261
13.4.1 Sensing......Page 262
13.4.2 Processing......Page 263
13.5.1 Engineered Networks......Page 264
13.5.3 Clustering Mechanisms......Page 265
13.5.3.1 Forming a Connected Backbone......Page 266
13.5.3.2 Forming a Hierarchical Communication and Processing Structure......Page 267
13.6.1 Routing in a Hierarchy......Page 269
13.6.2.1 Routing with Hierarchical Addresses......Page 270
13.6.2.2 Mapping Unique IDs to Hierarchical Addresses......Page 271
13.7 Drawbacks of Tiered Architectures......Page 272
References......Page 273
14.1 Motivation......Page 277
14.2 Background......Page 278
14.3 Issues for Topology Design......Page 279
14.3.3 Five-Neighbors WSN......Page 280
14.3.4 Six-Neighbors WSN......Page 281
14.3.7 Six-Neighbors for Three Dimensions......Page 282
14.4 Assumptions......Page 284
14.4.1 Calculation of Power Usage for Each Path......Page 285
14.5.1.2 Edge Routing......Page 286
14.5.1.4 Fixed Number of Transmissions......Page 287
14.5.2 Three-Dimensional Analysis......Page 288
14.6 Directional Source-Aware Routing Protocol (DSAP)......Page 289
14.7.1 Two-Dimension Analysis......Page 291
14.7.2 Three-Dimension Analysis......Page 294
14.8 Summary......Page 295
References......Page 296
15.1 Introduction......Page 297
15.2 Characteristics of Wireless Sensor Networks......Page 298
15.3 Architecture of Sensor Networks......Page 299
15.3.1 Functional Layers of Wireless Sensor Networks......Page 300
15.3.3 Communication Mode-Based Sensor Network Classification......Page 301
15.3.4 Data Fusion Architectures......Page 302
15.4.1 Performance Metrics of Dynamic Wireless Sensor Network......Page 303
15.4.2.2 Energy and Battery Models......Page 305
15.4.2.3 Connectivity Modeling and Topology Optimization......Page 306
15.4.2.4 Deployment and Sensing Coverage Models......Page 308
15.5 Concluding Remarks......Page 309
References......Page 310
16.1 Introduction......Page 313
16.2.1 Sensor Network Applications......Page 314
16.2.2.3 Sensor Query and Data Dissemination Protocol (SQDDP)......Page 315
16.3 Localization Protocols......Page 316
16.4 Time Synchronization Protocols......Page 317
16.5.1 Event-to-Sink Transport......Page 319
16.5.2 Sink-to-Sensors Transport......Page 320
16.6 Network Layer Protocols......Page 321
16.7 Data Link Layer Protocols......Page 323
16.7.1 Medium Access Control......Page 324
16.7.2 Error Control......Page 325
References......Page 326
17.1 Introduction......Page 329
17.2 A Protocol Suite for Sensor Networks......Page 330
17.2.2 Enforcement of Velocity Constraints......Page 331
17.2.3 Entity-Aware Transport......Page 332
17.3 A Sensor-Network Programming Model......Page 333
17.4 Related Work......Page 334
References......Page 336
18.1 Introduction......Page 338
18.2.1 Necessity of Resource Efficiency......Page 339
18.2.3 Energy Consumption in WSNs......Page 340
18.2.3.3 Communicating Energy......Page 341
18.3 Cross-Layer Communication Protocol Stack for WSNs......Page 342
18.4 Energy-Efficient MAC Protocols......Page 343
18.4.2.1 Centralized MAC Protocols......Page 344
18.4.2.2 Distributed MAC Protocols......Page 345
18.4.2.3 Hybrid MAC Protocols......Page 346
18.5.1 Classification of Network Layer Protocols......Page 347
18.5.2 Energy-Efficient Data Delivery Protocols......Page 348
18.5.2.1 Energy-Efficient Information Collection (E2IC) Protocols......Page 349
18.5.2.2 Energy-Efficient Information Dissemination (E2ID) Protocols......Page 352
18.5.3.2 Collaborative Signal and Information Processing (CSIP)......Page 353
18.6 Concluding Remarks......Page 354
References......Page 355
19.1.1 Sensor Coverage Problem......Page 360
19.1.2 Design Choices......Page 361
19.2.1 Energy-Efficient Random Coverage......Page 363
19.2.2 Connected Random Coverage......Page 365
19.2.4 Node Coverage as Approximation......Page 366
19.3.2 Deterministic Point Coverage......Page 367
19.4.2 Barrier Coverage Model 2......Page 368
Acknowledgment......Page 369
References......Page 370
20.1 Introduction......Page 372
20.2.1.1 Location in Space and Time......Page 373
20.2.1.2 Relative Positioning......Page 374
20.2.1.3 Absolute Positioning......Page 375
20.2.3.2 Triangulation......Page 376
20.2.3.3 Multilateration......Page 377
20.2.4 General Navigation Solutions Using Trilateration......Page 378
20.2.5.1 Global Positioning System......Page 379
20.2.5.4 The Lighthouse Location System......Page 380
20.3.1 The Wireless Sensor Network Difference......Page 381
20.3.2.1 Using the Network Topology for Positioning......Page 383
20.3.2.2 Range Errors and Quantization......Page 384
20.3.2.3 Influence of Border Effects and Filtering......Page 386
20.3.3.1 Cooperative Ranging......Page 387
20.3.3.3 Robust Start-Up Positioning Scheme......Page 388
20.3.3.4 Precision On-Demand Position Updates......Page 390
20.3.4 Emerging and Open Issues......Page 391
References......Page 392
21.1 Introduction......Page 395
21.2.1 ToA, TDoA, and AoA......Page 396
21.2.2 Positioning by Signal Strength......Page 397
21.3.1 Trilateration......Page 398
21.3.2 Multilateration......Page 399
21.3.3 Pattern Matching......Page 400
21.3.3.2 Probability-Based Algorithms......Page 401
21.3.4 Location Tracking......Page 402
21.3.5 Network-Based Tracking......Page 403
21.4.1 Active Badge and Bat......Page 404
21.4.4 CSIE/NCTU Indoor Tour Guide......Page 405
References......Page 406
22.1 Introduction......Page 408
22.3.2 System Requirements......Page 409
22.4.1 The Information Filter......Page 410
22.4.3 Channel Filter and Communication Management......Page 411
22.4.4.2 Integrated Ornstein-Uhlenbeck Process......Page 412
22.4.5.2 Broadcast with Hybrid CI/IF Update......Page 413
22.4.5.3 Dynamic Tree Structure......Page 414
22.5.1 Vision Sensors......Page 416
22.5.2 Radar Sensors......Page 418
22.6.1 Navigation Filter......Page 420
22.6.3 Interplatform and Interprocess Communication......Page 421
References......Page 422
23.1 Introduction......Page 424
23.2 Model Definition......Page 426
23.3.1 Preliminaries......Page 428
23.3.2.1 Energy-Efficient Summing Protocol......Page 429
23.3.2.2 Fault-Tolerant Energy-Efficient Summing Protocol......Page 432
23.3.3 WSNs with Dynamic Transmission Range......Page 433
23.4 Identifying Faulty Nodes in Wireless Sensor Networks......Page 434
23.4.2 Locating Faulty Sensors in Multihop WSNs......Page 435
References......Page 438
24.1 Sensor Networks: Organization and Processing......Page 441
24.1.1 Evolution of Sensor Systems......Page 442
24.2 Architectures for Sensor Integration......Page 443
24.2.1.1.1 Merit Factor in a Parallel System......Page 445
24.2.1.2 Parameterization of Parallel and Hierarchical Architectures......Page 446
24.2.1.3.1 Parallel System......Page 448
24.2.1.3.2 Hierarchical System......Page 449
24.2.2.1 Regions of Interest......Page 452
24.2.2.2 Data Clustering......Page 456
24.3 Example of Architecture Evaluation in High-Energy Physics......Page 458
References......Page 459
25.1 Introduction......Page 460
25.2.1 Traditional Network Architectures......Page 461
25.2.2 Mobile Agent-Based Distributed Sensor Networks......Page 462
25.2.3 Data Integration Methods......Page 463
25.3.1.1 Probabilistic Deployment......Page 464
25.3.2 Optimal Sensor Deployment Using Genetic Algorithm......Page 465
25.4.1 Mobile Agent Routing Using the Genetic Algorithm......Page 467
25.4.2 Connectivity through Time for Mobile Wireless Networks......Page 469
25.4.3.1 Spin Glass Model......Page 473
25.4.3.3 Ant Pheromone Model......Page 474
References......Page 475
26.1 Introduction......Page 477
26.2 The Cooperative Computing Model......Page 479
26.3.3 Virtual Machine......Page 480
26.4 Smart Messages......Page 481
26.4.1.3 Migration......Page 482
26.5 Programming Interface......Page 483
26.6.1 Cost of SM Migration......Page 484
26.6.1.2 SM Transfer......Page 485
26.6.2 Cost of Tag Space Operations......Page 487
26.7.1 SPIN Using Smart Messages......Page 488
26.7.2 Directed Diffusion Using Smart Messages......Page 489
26.8 Simulation Results......Page 490
26.9 Related Work......Page 491
References......Page 494
27.1 Introduction......Page 496
27.2.1 Multiple Shutdown States......Page 497
27.2.2 Sensor Node Architecture......Page 498
27.2.3 Sleep State Transition Policy......Page 499
27.3.1 Variable Voltage Processing......Page 500
27.4.1 DVS Circuit......Page 501
27.4.2 Idle Power Management Hooks......Page 503
27.4.3 Processor Power Modes......Page 504
27.4.4 OS Architecture......Page 506
27.5 Results......Page 507
References......Page 510
28.1 Introduction......Page 511
28.2 Unique Characteristics of Wireless Sensor Networks......Page 512
28.2.1 Why Are MAC Layer Design Issues Important?......Page 513
28.3.1.1 Operation......Page 514
28.3.1.3 Merits, Drawbacks, and Implications for WSNs......Page 515
28.3.2.1 Operation......Page 516
28.3.3.1 Operation......Page 517
28.3.4.1 Operation......Page 518
28.3.4.2 Merits, Drawbacks, and Implications for WSNs......Page 519
28.4 Design Challenges for Wireless Sensor Networks......Page 520
28.4.1 Why Existing Methods for Wireless ad hoc Networks Cannot Be Used......Page 521
28.4.2 Communication and Application Types in Sensor Networks......Page 522
28.5 Medium Access Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks......Page 523
28.5.1.2 Coordinated Sleeping......Page 524
28.5.1.4 Synchronization......Page 525
28.5.2.1 Operation......Page 526
28.5.3.1 Operation......Page 528
28.5.4 Power-Efficient and Delay-Aware Medium-Access Protocol for Sensor Networks ( PEDAMACS)......Page 530
28.5.4.1 Operation......Page 531
28.6 Open Issues......Page 532
References......Page 534
29.1 Introduction......Page 536
29.2.1 CPU-Centric DPM......Page 537
29.2.2 I/O-Centric DPM......Page 538
29.4.1 The LEDF Algorithm......Page 539
29.4.2.1 Hardware Platform......Page 540
29.4.2.2 Software Architecture......Page 541
29.4.3 Experimental Results......Page 542
29.5.1 Device Scheduling for Two-State I/O Devices......Page 546
29.5.1.1 Online Scheduling of Two-State Devices: Algorithm LEDES......Page 548
29.5.2 Low-Energy Device Scheduling of Multistate I/O Devices......Page 549
29.5.3 Experimental Results......Page 552
29.6 Energy-Aware Communication......Page 554
29.6.1 Detection Probability Table......Page 555
29.6.2 Score-Based Ranking......Page 556
29.6.4 Energy Evaluation Model for Target Localization in Wireless Sensor Networks......Page 559
29.6.4.1 Refined Energy Evaluation Model......Page 561
29.6.6.1 Case Study......Page 563
29.7 Conclusions......Page 567
References......Page 568
30.1 Introduction......Page 570
30.2.1 Application Layer......Page 571
30.2.3 Data Link Layer......Page 572
30.3 Routing Protocol Characteristics and Related Work......Page 573
30.5 Energy-Aware Routing......Page 574
30.5.1 Setup Phase......Page 575
30.6 Simulations......Page 576
30.7 Data Funneling......Page 579
30.7.1 Setup Phase......Page 581
30.8 Conclusion......Page 582
References......Page 583
31.1 Introduction......Page 585
31.2.1 Security-Related Properties......Page 586
31.2.3 Mobile Code......Page 587
31.3 Security Architectures......Page 588
31.3.1 Cell-Based WSNs......Page 589
31.3.2 Ad Hoc Sensor Networks......Page 592
31.4.1 Principle of Minimal Generalization......Page 595
31.4.2 Privacy of Location Information......Page 596
References......Page 599
32.1 Introduction......Page 603
32.1.2 Denial of Service......Page 604
32.1.4 Sensor Network Vulnerability......Page 606
32.2.1 Attacker......Page 607
32.2.2.3 Technical Capability......Page 609
32.2.3.1 Type of Service......Page 610
32.2.4.2 Logical......Page 611
32.3 Vulnerabilities and Defenses......Page 612
32.3.2 Tampering......Page 613
32.3.5 Selective Forwarding......Page 614
32.3.7 Sinkholes......Page 615
32.3.10 Flooding......Page 616
32.3.12 Algorithmic Complexity Attack......Page 617
32.4 Related Work......Page 618
32.5 Conclusion......Page 619
References......Page 620
33.1 Introduction......Page 623
33.3 Existing Work on Reliability Support......Page 624
33.5 Architecture of a Distributed Sensor System......Page 625
33.6 Directed Diffusion Network......Page 626
33.7.1 Reconfigurable Smart Nodes......Page 627
33.7.2 Distributed Lookup Server......Page 628
33.7.4 Adaptation Server......Page 629
33.8.2 Connectors......Page 630
33.8.3 Sensor Task Structures......Page 631
33.9.1 Consistent Schedule......Page 632
33.10 Conclusions......Page 633
References......Page 634
34.1 Introduction......Page 636
34.2 Game-Theoretic Models of Reliable and Length Energy- Constrained Routing......Page 637
34.2.1 Reliable Routing in Geographically Routed Sensor Networks......Page 638
34.2.2 Distributed Implementation of Length-Constrained RQR......Page 639
34.3.1 Data Transmission Phase......Page 640
34.3.2 Path Determination Phase......Page 641
34.4 Performance Evaluation......Page 642
34.4.2 Results and Analysis......Page 643
References......Page 645
35.1 Introduction......Page 647
35.2 Sensor Network Formulation......Page 648
35.2.2 Two Optimization Criteria......Page 649
35.3 Fault-Tolerant Interval Estimation without Knowledge of Confidence Degrees......Page 650
35.4.1 Combined Intervals......Page 651
35.4.2 Combined Confidence Degrees......Page 652
35.5 Fault-Tolerant Interval Estimation with Knowledge of Confidence Degrees......Page 655
35.7.1 Stability......Page 657
35.7.2 Sensor Interval Endpoint Tolerance......Page 658
References......Page 662
36.1.1 Motivation......Page 664
36.1.2 Objectives......Page 665
36.3 Example of Fault Tolerance in a Sensor Network System......Page 666
36.4 Classical Fault Tolerance......Page 667
36.5.1 Physical Layer......Page 668
36.5.2 Hardware......Page 669
36.5.5 Application......Page 670
36.6.1 Heterogeneous Fault Detection......Page 671
36.6.2 Discrepancy-Based Fault Detection and Correction......Page 674
36.7 Future Research Directions......Page 675
References......Page 676
37.2 Location......Page 679
37.4 Computation......Page 680
37.4.1 Asynchronous Processors......Page 681
37.4.2 Variable-Frequency Processors......Page 682
37.5 HardwareÒSoftware Interaction......Page 683
37.6.1 Mote-to-Mote Communication......Page 685
37.6.2 Mote-to-Central Station Communication......Page 687
37.8 Conclusion......Page 688
References......Page 689
38.1 Introduction......Page 691
38.1.1 A Motivational Example......Page 693
38.2.1 On Distributed Sensor Networks......Page 694
38.2.2 On Dynamic Voltage Scaling......Page 695
38.3.1 Model of Sensor Node and Energy Consumption in DSNs......Page 696
38.3.2 Processor with Multiple Supply Voltages......Page 697
38.3.3 The Message Header......Page 698
38.4.2 Energy Consumption for Data Encryption and Decryption......Page 699
38.4.3 Dynamic Voltage Scaling on Sensor Nodes......Page 700
38.5.1 Simulation Platform......Page 701
38.5.2.1 Messages Generated from Simulation......Page 703
38.5.2.2 Simulation on Different System Configurations......Page 704
38.5.2.3 From Where Do Energy Savings Come?......Page 705
38.5.2.4 Energy-Driven System Configuration......Page 706
Acknowledgments......Page 707
References......Page 708
39.1.1 Wireless Sensor Networks......Page 710
39.1.3 Networking and Routing......Page 711
39.1.5 Routing......Page 712
39.2.1 Unit Disk Graph......Page 713
39.2.2 Power-Attenuation Model......Page 714
39.2.4 Low-Weight Structures......Page 715
39.2.5.1 Minimum Spanning Tree, Relative Neighborhood Graph and Gabriel Graph......Page 716
39.2.5.3 Delaunay Triangulation and Voronoi Diagram......Page 717
39.2.6 Localized Algorithms......Page 718
39.3.1.1 Yao Structure......Page 719
39.3.1.2 Sink Structure......Page 720
39.3.1.3 YaoYao Structure......Page 721
39.3.2.2 Localized Delaunay Triangulation......Page 722
39.3.2.3 Partial Delaunay Triangulation......Page 724
39.3.3 Bounded Degree, Planar Structures......Page 725
39.3.4.1 Centralized Low-Weight Bounded Degree Planar Spanners......Page 728
39.3.4.2 Localized Low-Weight Bounded Degree Planar Structures......Page 729
39.3.5 Fault Tolerance......Page 733
39.3.6 Interference......Page 737
39.3.7 Transmission Power Control......Page 738
39.3.8.1 Centralized Methods......Page 739
39.3.8.2.1 Clustering without Geometric Property......Page 740
39.3.8.2.2 Clustering with Geometric Property......Page 741
39.4 Localized Routing......Page 742
39.4.1 Simple Heuristics......Page 743
39.4.2 Right-Hand Rule and Face Routing......Page 744
39.4.3 Combining Face Routing with Greedy Routing......Page 745
39.4.4 Routing on Delaunay Triangulation......Page 746
39.5.1.1 Assumptions......Page 747
39.5.1.2 Centralized Methods......Page 748
39.5.1.3 Theoretical Analysis of Minimum-Energy Broadcast......Page 749
39.5.2 Localized Methods......Page 750
References......Page 751
40.1.1 Motivation......Page 759
40.2 Models and Abstractions......Page 760
40.3 Centralized Algorithm......Page 762
40.4.2 (MI)2......Page 766
40.4.2.2 Phase 2: System Structuring......Page 767
40.4.3 Solving ILP Problems by (Mi)2-Based Paradigm......Page 768
40.5 Analysis......Page 770
40.6 Protocols and Distributed Localized Algorithms......Page 771
40.7 Pending Challenges......Page 773
References......Page 774