Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation 4.0

✍ Scribed by Norbert Meyendorf, Nathan Ida, Ripudaman Singh, Johannes Vrana

• Publisher: Springer
• Year: 2022
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 1272
• Series: Springer Nature Reference
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

This handbook comprehensively covers the cutting-edge trends and techniques essential for the integration of nondestructive evaluation (NDE) into the changing face of the modern industrial landscape. In particular, it delves into the marriage of NDE with new techniques in e.g. data mining, cloud computing and autonomous operation, highlighting the potential for cyber-physical controlled production and discussing the myriad possible applications across many different industries.

The Handbook of NDE 4.0 centers around the Internet of Things and Industry 4.0 – the next generation of industrial production encompassing all aspects of networking across all industrial areas. It discusses the adaptation of existing NDE techniques to emerging new technological areas, such as 3D printing, via the introduction of cyber systems into the inspection and maintenance processes. In addition, the handbook covers topics such as the management and processing of big data with respect to real-time monitoring of structural integrity and reliable inspection of individual components. Remote NDE to include competence not available on-site will be a potential technique to increase reliability of NDE inspections by integrating additional specialist inputs into the decision process by methods such as telepresence, thereby better leveraging the scarce resources of senior inspectors into industrial inspections at multiple sites.

The handbook houses a wealth of essential information to help academics, industry professionals and entrepreneurs navigate through this burgeoning new field. The material in this handbook is presented with the intention of ultimately improving human safety through reliable inspections and dependable maintenance of critical infrastructure, while also enhancing business value through reduced downtime, affordable maintenance, and talent optimization.

✦ Table of Contents

Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I: Concepts and Trends
1 Introduction to NDE 4.0
The Industrial Revolutions
Brief History
Technologies Driving Industry 4.0
Digitization, Digitalization, Digital Transformation, and Informatization
Digital Twin
Digital Thread
IIoT: Industrial Internet of Things and the Infrastructure
Semantic Interoperability, Ontologies
Industry 4.0 Data Processing
5G
Blockchain
Cloud
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Big Data
Mobile Devices, Handheld and Small-Size Computers
Quantum Computers
Extended Reality (XR)
Additive Manufacturing
Automation, Robotics, and Drones
Simulation and Reconstruction
So, What Is Industry 4.0?
Recommended Terminology
The Revolutions in NDE Domain
Brief History
So, What Is NDE 4.0?
Recommended Terminology - NDE 4.0
Drivers of the Current Revolution in NDE
NDE 4.0 Use Cases and Value Proposition
Industry 4.0 for NDE
Enhancing NDE Capability and Reliability through Emerging Technologies
Improving Efficiency and Effectiveness of Inspections Through Better Control
Improving NDE Equipment Using Inspector and Built-in Application Feedback
Improving Inspector Safety and Inspection Support Through Remote Access
NDE for Everybody
NDE for Industry 4.0
Quality Assurance in the Factory and the Infrastructure of the Future
Quality Assurance of the Additively Manufactured Components
NDE of Drones and Critical Industrial Robots
Continuous Improvement Through Data Mining
Data Monetization
NDE 4.0 as an Eco-System
Summary
Cross-References
References
2 Basic Concepts of NDE
Introduction to NDE
Classification of NDE Methods Based on Basic Physical Principles
Visual Inspection
Enhancement of Visibility of Defects
Electric and Magnetic Fields (MPT, EC, MRI)
Basics
Magnetic Particle Testing
Eddy Current Testing
NMR, MRI
Micromagnetic Techniques
Electromagnetic Radiation
Microwave THz and Radar Techniques
Microwave Methods of NDE
Reflection, Scattering, and Transmission Methods
Terahertz Methods of NDE
Thermography and Thermal Techniques
Optical Spectroscopic Techniques
X-Ray Techniques
Elementary Particles - Electrons, Positrons, Neutrons
Gamma Rays (Gamma Particles)
Electrons
Neutrons
Positrons
Elastic/Acoustic Waves
Semi-nondestructive Methods
NDE Tasks
Quantification of NDE and Decision-Making
References
3 History of Communication and the Internet
Introduction
From the Beginning to ARPANET
Developments in Cellular Communications
Growth of Communication Networks
The World Wide Web
Communication in NDE
Role of Communication Networks in NDE: The Road to 5G and Beyond
Summary: Today and Tomorrow
Cross-References
References
4 Creating a Digital Foundation for NDE 4.0
Introduction
Digitalizing Your Existing Business
Digitalizing Your Data
Data Elements
Data Format
Storing Your Data
Digitalizing Your Processes
The 7-Step Process Digitalization Processes!
Step 1: Identify Your Baseline
Step 2: Map Out Existing Processes
Step 3: Identify Problem Areas
Step 4: Determine How to Fix Problem Areas
Step 5: Evaluate and Choose Solutions
Step 6: Build Out New Process Maps
Step 7: Implement and Test
Audit Trail
Foundation for NDE 4.0
Summary
Cross-References
5 Digitization, Digitalization, and Digital Transformation
Introduction
Basics
Digitization
Numbers and Text
Signals and Waveforms
Images and Videos
Volumetrics and Games
Digitalization
Digital Transformation
Stages of Informatization in NDE
Digitization
Digitalization
Digital Transformation
Informatization of Training and Certification
Example: Informatization of Radiography
Digitization of Radiography
Digitalization of Radiography
Digital Transformation of Radiography
Summary
Outlook
Cross-References
References
6 Improving NDE 4.0 by Networking, Advanced Sensors, Smartphones, and Tablets
Introduction
Purpose and History of Portable NDE
Current Status of NDE
Skills Shortage and an Aging Workforce
Generation Shift
Complicated Data Interpretation
Incomplete Traceability
Complex User Interfaces
Obstructed Data Sharing
Current State of Mobile Technology
User Interfaces
Processing Power
5G and Wireless Data Streaming
Local and Cloud Storage
Overcoming NDE Shortcomings with Mobile Technology
Training
Ergonomics
Screen Sharing
Traceability
Advanced Visualization: Augmented Reality
Reporting
Big Data
New Business Models with Connected Devices (Adapted from [11])
Hardware as a Service
Blockers to Adoption
The New Ecosystem for NDE and How Smart Devices Can Trigger New Business Cases
Cellphone for NDE Teaching in Schools
Hardware
The Eddy Current App
Materials Characterization (Sorting)
Defect Detection (Surface Cracks and Wall Reductions)
Student Ideas for New NDE Business Cases for NDE at Home´´ Self-Inspection of Used Automobiles House NDE Applications Using Cellphone-Attachable Infrared Imaging Assisting Visual Inspection of Glass Defects with Cellphones Unmanned Arial Systems for Pipeline Leak Detection and Inspection Summary Cross-References References 7 Value Creation in NDE 4.0: What and How Introduction NDT Value Perception NDE Ecosystem Bird´s-Eye View of the Ecosystem Key Stakeholders Asset OEMs Owner-Operators Asset Inspectors NDE OEMs More Stakeholders NDE Research Establishments Inspector Training Schools and Certification Bodies Regulatory Bodies The Standardization Challenge Communities and Societies IT Infrastructure Providers Consultants and Coaches Still Unknown Key Value Streams Asset Value Stream NDE Personnel Value Stream NDE System Value Stream More Value Streams Regulatory Value Stream Research & Development Value Stream Digital Thread in the NDE Ecosystem Digital Thread of the Asset Digital Thread of NDE System NDE Personnel Digital Thread Digital Weave in the NDE Ecosystem Cyber-Physical Value Creation in NDE Basic Cyber-Physical Loop NDE Event Loop for Asset Inspectors Maintenance Loop for Asset Owner-Operators Design Loop for Asset OEMs NDE System Design Loop for NDE OEMs NDE Equipment OEMs Cyber-Physical Loops for Predictive Maintenance of NDE Equipment More Loops in NDE Ecosystems NDE Engineering Within the Loops Challenges Data Markets and the Connected Industry 4.0 World Decision Requirements Summary Cross-References References 8 From Nondestructive Testing to Prognostics: Revisited Introduction NDE and SHM NDT to Prognostics Prognostics Models of Degradation Accumulation Diagnostics and Damage State Awareness Prognostics from Precursors Uncertainty Quantification Technology Demonstrations Technical Challenges Summary Cross-References References 9 Reliability Evaluation of Testing Systems and Their Connection to NDE 4.0 Introduction to the Need and Capability of NDT The Need of NDT The Company/Industry Requirements to Use NDT The Customer Necessitates the Company/Industry to Use NDT Capability and Reliability of NDT The Failure as the Reason for Reliability Evaluation Probabilistic Nature of Failure Example: Railway Maintenance Understanding the Reliability of NDT Definition of the Reliability of NDT Systems Probability of Detection (POD) Probability of Identification (POI)/Probability of Characterization (POCh) Probability of Correct Sizing (POS) Probability of False Alarm (POFa) Interconnection Between the Evaluation Characteristics of NDT Reliability Measurement Uncertainty Versus Testing Uncertainty Receiver Operating Characteristics Fourfold Table Receiver Operating Characteristics Curve The Probability of Detection Nonparametric POD Approach: 29 out of 29 HIT-MISS POD Approach Signal Response POD Approach Relationship Between Signal and Defect Parameter Statistical Requirements About the Scatter of Data Signal Response POD Curve Number of Data Points Advanced POD Approaches Influence on the Reliability of the Nondestructive Testing System Reliability Evaluation of NDE 4.0 Introduction Modular Model for NDE 4.0 The Probabilistic Framework Issue of Scarce Events Summary Cross-References References 10 NDE 4.0: New Paradigm for the NDE Inspection Personnel Introduction Defining the New NDE 4.0 Paradigm The NDE Paradigm Change Traditional NDE Paradigm The Changing Role of Automation Paradigm Shift: Transitional Systems Pave Way to NDE 4.0 The Full NDE 4.0 System The Problem That NDE 4.0 Solves Full NDE 4.0 System Defined Anatomy of an NDE 4.0 System The Changing Role of Human Inspectors in NDE 4.0 The Role of People in the Traditional NDE Paradigm The Transitional System: New Challenges with New Technologies NDE 4.0: Definition of New Roles and Responsibilities Addressing the Challenges of the New Paradigm Summary Cross-References References 11Moore´s Law´´ of NDE
Introduction
Moore´s Law and its Consequences
Nanotechnology and NDE Requirements
A New Type of NDE Techniques for the Nano- World´´ Barkhausen Noise Microscopy Nano-Raman Microscopy X-Ray Nano-Tomography: An Example for Extremely High Resolution 3D Imaging Acoustic Microscopy Modifications of the Atomic Force Microscopy Method Detectability or Resolution of NDE Techniques on a Historic Scale The Resolution of an NDE Technique Future Vision Summary References Part II: Technical Disciplines 12 Industrial Internet of Things, Digital Twins, and Cyber-Physical Loops for NDE 4.0 Introduction Digitization, Digitalization, and Digital Transformation Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) Automation Stack The Idea of the IIoT How to Integrate NDE into the IIOT: Basic Ideas Semantic Interoperability Interfaces for IIoT OSI Level IIC Core Connectivity Standards OPC UA DICOM Digital Workflow in NDE with OPC UA and DICONDE Data Security, Data Sovereignty, Connected World, and Data Markets How to Integrate NDE into the IIOT: How to Proceed Digital Twin Digital Twin of a Person Basic Concepts Nesting Digital Twins of Personnel Digital Thread Digital Twin Type, Instance, and Aggregate Digital Twin Interrelation Reference Architectural Model Industry 4.0 (RAMI 4.0) General Concept of a Digital Twin The Cyber-Physical Loop Discussion and Outlook Cross-References References 13 Compressed Sensing: From Big Data to Relevant Data Introduction Theoretic Foundations Compressed Sensing for Relevant Data Extraction for NDE 4.0 Applications in Ultrasound Testing Applications in X-Ray Computed Tomography Applications in Terahertz Imaging Summary and Outlook Cross-References References 14 Semantic Interoperability as Key for a NDE 4.0 Data Management Introduction Semantic Interoperability in a Holistic Asset Management Approach Basics on Technological Asset Management Semantic Operability in Operational Database Management Systems Summary Cross-References References 15 Registration of NDE Data to CAD Introduction Need for Registering NDE Data to CAD 2D Registration 2D Homogeneous Coordinates 2D Geometric Inconsistency 3D Registration Rotational Symmetry Simple Kinematic Models of Measurement Systems Propagation Models Such as for Ultrasonic Testing 3D Homogeneous Coordinates Mapping of Coordinate Frames Instead of Points Robotic Systems Propagation Model for Camera-Based Sensing Camera Calibration and Distortion Correction Pose Estimation Calibration of Kinematic Models CAD Models Direct 3D Visualization Surface Parameterizations as a Domain for Data Storage and Fusion Representations of Surface Parameterizations Creating Surface Parameterizations Mapping Data onto Surface Parameterizations Data from Different Camera Angles Analysis in the Parameterized Domain Accommodating Geometric Inconsistency Persistent Parameterizations: A Potential Tool for Accommodating Geometric Inconsistency Spatial Database Storage Accommodating Errors Need for Open Standards and Open Source Tools Summary Cross-References References 16 NDE 4.0: Image and Sound Recognition Introduction Motivations Pattern Recognition in NDE 4.0 Sound and Image Data Structures in Pattern Recognition Machine Learning Helps Pattern Recognition Neural Networks for Data Classification Advancements Enabling Machine Learning Available Neural Networks Software and Platforms Image Recognition Background Image Recognition in NDE 4.0 Sound Recognition Background Fundamentals of Sound and Acoustic Sound Recognition in NDT and SHM Challenges and Insights Overview of Challenges and Potential Solutions Potential Solutions and Future Direction Data Augmentation Domain Adaptation Open Set Classification Transfer Learning The Role of Standards Workforce Training Summary References 17 Image Processing 2D/3D with Emphasis on Image Segmentation Introduction Measurement Techniques in Brief X-Ray Radiography and Computed Tomography Magnetic Resonance Tomography Applied Segmentation Problems: Classical Approaches Histogram-Based Segmentation Examples of Histogram-Based Segmentation Failure Model-Based 3D Geometry Extraction Limitation of Classical Approaches Image Segmentation: Toward New Frontiers Motivation Convolutional Neural Network: A Summary Semantic Segmentation Using CNNs Conclusion Cross-References References 18 Applied Artificial Intelligence in NDE Introduction Conventional Automated Image Processing Approach Preprocessing Image Segmentation Features Extraction Classification Application Example for Ultrasound Image Processing of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer Samples Application Example for Infrared Thermography Data of Stainless-Steel Sample Deep Learning Approaches Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) and Region-Based CNN Long Short-Term Memory-Recurrent Neural Networks LSTM-RNN Application Example for LSTM-RNN-Based Defect Classification in Honeycomb Structures Using Infrared Thermography Performance Measures of a Classifier Commonly Used Libraries and Frameworks Sensor Data Fusion Application Example for X-Ray Images Summary and Outlook References 19 The Human-Machine Interface (HMI) with NDE 4.0 Systems Introduction Introduction to NDE 4.0 The Human-Machine Interface at Center of NDE 4.0 NDE 4.0 Process Tasks and the Advancement of Automation Summary of NDE 4.0 Process Tasks and Automation Opportunities Transition from Analog to Digital NDE Systems and Early Human-Machine Interfaces Quantitative NDE and Algorithms for NDE Data Review Lessons Learned from Developing a Human-Machine Interface for Early NDE 4.0 Applications Addressing the QuestionWhy Was That Indication Call Made?´´
Contrasting Assisted from Fully Automated NDE 4.0 Systems
NDE 4.0 HMI and the NDE Inspector
Overcoming Challenges of Implementing NDE 4.0 Algorithms
Complimentary Roles for Automation and NDE Inspector in NDE 4.0 Systems
Improved Standards for Graphical User Interface Development for NDE Data Review
Strategies to Verify Data Quality in NDE 4.0 Systems
Feedback Tools for Adapting NDE 4.0 Algorithms Over Time
Augmented Reality (AR) Systems
Collaborative Robots (Cobots)
Software Interfaces to Support NDE Inspector Training
NDE 4.0 HMI and the NDE Engineer
Engineering Management Oversight of Transition to NDE 4.0
Supporting Engineering Data Mining and Discovery
Tools to Support Digital Twin and Material Review Board
NDE 4.0 Automation Development Environments
Summary
Cross-References
References
20 Artificial Intelligence and NDE Competencies
Introduction: The Human Dimension of NDE
NDE as a Professional Path
The Traditional Formation of NDE Professionals
Differentiating Knowledge, Skills, and Competences
Technology Impact
Meaning of AI
AI and Data Science
The Fluid and Ever-Evolving Dilemma of Attempting an AI Definition: The Blind Men and the Elephant
A Concise History of AI and the Continuous Pursuit for Smart Nonhuman Assistants
The Prehistory of AI
Turing Test
Early AI Research
The Dartmouth Summer Research Conference
DARPA and Military Involvement
Main AI Initiatives Through Academic Institutions with Government Support - North America (Canada, USA) Europe, Japan, etc.
The Impact of AI Developments Through Corporations and SMEs
Generic Developments (Google, IBM, Tesla, etc.)
Specialized Developments (Through SMEs): NDE May Have a Narrow AI Scope
Frontiers and Lines of Exploration
The Phased-Out Parallel Advancement with the Health Sector
Where We Are Now
AI Awareness in a Work Environment
AI Ethics and Security
AI Policy Research
AI Implementation
AI Social Impact
AI Initiatives Development Structure Pertinent to NDE
The Landscape of AI
AI-Related Technologies
Natural Language Processing
Speech Recognition and Generation
Images Processing (Recognition and Generation)
Robotics
Deterministic Rules and Processes and Decisions
Event Processing
Predictive Knowledge Management
Programing Languages for AI - Automatic Programming
Planning and Decision Support
Specialized Hardware for AI
An Overview of Leading Machine Learning Forms
Real-World Application Categories
Permeating NDE Skills to Digital Assistants
Knowledge, Skills, and Competencies in the NDE 4.0 Era
NDE 4.0 Body of Knowledge
Soft, Hard, and Digital Skills
New Competencies
Stable, Redundant/Evolved, and New Roles
Conclusions - Competition Versus Complementation, a Balanced Pathway Toward the Formation of NDE Professionals in the Future
Summary
Relevant Websites Referenced in the Chapter
Cross-References
References
21 Smart Monitoring and SHM
Introduction
Components of a SHM System
Method Selection and System Design
Sensor Selection
Electronics and Energy Supply
Signal Processing and Data Evaluation
Necessary Investigations Prior the Measurements
Data Preprocessing and Acquisition
Data Management
Data Analysis
Prediction of Residual Life
Regulations
System Integration and Reliability of the Components
Application Example: Sensor Ring for Offshore Welded Seam Testing
Summary
References
22 Sensors, Sensor Network, and SHM
Introduction
SHM as in Situ NDE
Scheduled and Automated SHM
Introduction to Sensors for SHM
Introduction to Sensor Networks
Signal Processing and Diagnostics
Damage Index Method
Diagnostic Imaging Method
Estimating Impact Location
Estimating Impact Force
Application Examples
Rotorcraft
Damage Verification Testing
Level I Damage Detection
Level II Damage Localization
Level III Damage Quantification
Flight Testing
Pipeline
Paper-Manufacturing Equipment
High Speed Train
IIoT Solutions
Summary
References
23 Probabilistic Lifing
Introduction
Deterministic and Probabilistic Lifing Methods
Basic Concept
Simple Disk Example
Probabilistic Risk Contours
Probabilistic Design Criteria
Health- and Safety-Related Acceptable Risk Criteria
Business and Cost Performance Criteria
Relative Risk Approach
Application Examples
Aero Engine
FAA Calibration Test Case
Aero-Engine Example
Power Generation
Rotor Disks
Probabilistic Analysis
Initial Quality and Service Inspections
Summary and Outlook
Cross-References
References
24 Robotic NDE for Industrial Field Inspections
Introduction
Robotic Inspection Technologies
Ground-Based Remote Inspection Robots
Airborne Remote Inspection Robots
Underwater Remote Inspection Robots
Use of Robotic Inspection Systems in Industry
Benefits and Drawbacks of Robotic Inspections
Benefits of Industrial Robotic Inspections
Drawbacks of Industrial Robotic Inspections
Toward a more Automated Future
Industrial Inspection Standards
Growth in Inspection Robotics
Conclusion
Cross-References
References
Part III: Applications
25 NDE for Additive Manufacturing
Introduction
Additive Manufacturing: From 3D CAD to NDE Investigated Part
Additive Manufacturing
Process Description
Machining and Finishing
Geometry Design
Material Classes
Ceramics
Plastics
Raster Angle Dependency [17]
Air Gaps [17, 18]
Interlayer Bonding
Metals
Laser Metal Deposition
Laser Spot Size
Laser Power
Scanning Speed
Powder Mass
Powder Bed Fusion
Scanning Speed
Laser Power/Beam Current
Hatch Spacing
Focus Offset
Working Atmosphere
Powder Quality
Binder Jet 3D Printing
Powder Characteristics
Binder
Print Parameters
Typical Defects
Lack of Fusion
Gas Porosity
Loss of Alloying Elements
Unmolten Powder
Delamination/Swelling
Cracks
Additive Manufacturing: In Situ NDE Investigation
Additive Manufacturing: Post-processing NDE Investigation
3D Scanning
X-Ray Radiography
Computer Tomography
Ultrasonic Testing
Summary
Cross-References
References
26 In Situ Real-Time Monitoring Versus Post NDE for Quality Assurance of Additively Manufactured Metal Parts
Introduction
Overview of In Situ Monitoring and In Situ NDE Methods
Optical, Spectroscopic, and Thermographic Methods
Optical Methods
Spectroscopic Methods
Passive Thermographic Methods
Optical Tomography
Active Thermography with Laser Excitation
Acoustic Methods
Ultrasonics
Spatially Resolved Acoustic Spectroscopy (SRAS)
Acoustic Emission
Electromagnetic Methods
Measurement of Particle and Fume Emission
Requirements and Examples of Thermographic Methods for in Situ Monitoring of Different Additive Manufacturing Processes
General Requirements
Powder Bed Fusion of Metals with Laser Beam (PBF-LB/M)
Special Requirements
Example 1: Detecting Artificial and Natural Defects
Direct Energy Deposition with a Laser (DED-LB/M)
Requirements
Example 1: Comparison of VIS, SWIR, and MWIR Camera Systems in a Configuration Fixed to the Build Platform
Example 2: Determination of Melt Pool Properties with Camera Fixed to the Manipulator
Comparison of In Situ Monitoring Against Post NDE: Advantages, Challenges, and Outlook
Conclusion and Outlook
Cross-References
References
27 NDE in Additive Manufacturing of Ceramic Components
Introduction
Methods and Principles
Laser Speckle Photometry - Principle of Operation
Application of LSP for Quality Control of Additive Manufactured Ceramics
Porosity Measurement on Samples of Multimaterial Jetting (CerAM MMJ) Processes by LSP
Optical Coherence Tomography - Principle of Operation
OCT in Studies of 3-D Printed Ceramic Materials
Geometry Evaluation
Contamination Detection
Subsurface Information and Material Contrast
Data Monitoring Along the Manufacturing Chain
Summary
Cross-References
References
28 Inspection of Ceramic Materials
Introduction
Optical Methods
Visual Inspection
Penetrant Testing
Thermography
Infrared Transmission
Optical Coherence Tomography
Laser Speckle Photometry
X-Ray Methods
High-Frequency Eddy Current Testing, Microwave and Terahertz Technology
Elastodynamic Methods
Ultrasonic Testing
Laser Ultrasound Technology
Cryo-Ultrasound
Material Characterization with Elastodynamic Methods
Resonance Test
Summary
Cross-References
References
29 Testing of Polymers and Composite Materials
Introduction
Polymer Matrix Based Composite Defects
Fabrication Quality Control
Defects Due to Service Loading
Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques for Polymer-Matrix Composites
Ultrasound Imaging
Thermography
Dielectric Spectroscopy
Computed Tomography
Guided Ultrasonic Waves
Embedded Sensor Arrays
Outlook for Industry 4.0 in NDE of Polymer Matrix-Based Composites
Summary
Cross-References
References
30 Characterization of Materials Microstructure and Surface Gradients using Advanced Techniques
Introduction
Determination of the Hardening Depth
Surface and Case Hardening
Thermal Hardening
Thermochemical Hardening
Mixed Hardening
Definition of the Hardening Depth
Destructive Determination of the Hardening Depth
Nondestructive Determination of the Hardening Depth
Electromagnetic Methods
Acoustic Methods
Thermographic Methods
Summary
Cross-References
References
31 Nondestructive Testing of Welds
Introduction
Welding
Fusion Welding
Pressure Welding
Additive Manufacturing
Weld Defects
Acceptance of Flaws
Nondestructive Testing of Welds
Volumetric Testing
Radiographic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
Surface Testing
Perspectives for NDE 4.0
Automated NDE Applications
Automatic NDE in Automotive: Ultrasound-Based Monitoring of the Resistance Spot Welding Process
Real-Time Embedded Ultrasonic Monitoring for Resistance Spot Welding
Contact-Free Automatic NDE in Automotive
Automated NDE in Pipe Production
Ultrasonic Inspection System Integrated in Pipe Production Mill
Future Developments of the System Toward NDE 4.0
Automated Determination of Pipe Identification Number
Automated Set Up of Inspection System to Another Inspection Order
Automatic Verification and Evaluation of Indications
Automatic Adjustment of Process Parameters
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
References
32 Optical Coherence Tomography as Monitoring Technology for the Additive Manufacturing of Future Biomedical Parts
Introduction
Additive Manufacturing
Bioprinting
SLS
OCT Basics
OCT @ Bioprinter
Image Acquisition Direction
Printing Process
In-Line OCT Monitoring
Printing Pattern 1
Printing Pattern 2
OCT @ SLS Printer
Off-Line OCT Monitoring
Powder Bed
Measurements on Simple Printed Structures
Summary
Cross-References
References
33 NDE for Electronic Packaging
Challenges to NDE in Production of Electronic Components and Devices - An Introduction
Systematization of Test Methods Commonly Used in the Electronics Industry
Fundamentals of Non-Destructive Testing Methods for Electronic Packaging
Thermography
Optical Inspection
X-Ray Inspection Methods
Introduction
2-D X-Ray Inspection Method Radiography
3-D X-Ray Inspection Methods Laminography and Computed Tomography
Laminography
Computed Tomography (CT)
Comparative Images of the Different X-Ray Methods on Real Samples
Sample 1: Double-Sided Assembled BGA (Memory Device)
Sample 2: QFN Device with Exposed Pad for Heat Dissipation
Sample 3: Module with LGA Connections
Conclusions
Defect Detectability with X-Ray Inspection Methods
Ultrasonic Microscopy
New Software Approaches for NDE
Intelligent/Sophisticated Software Ecosystems for Automatic Inspection
Programming Inspections
Visualization and Statistics
Closed-Loop Processes
New Approaches Powered by Artificial Intelligence
Automated Inspection Programming
Preventing Classification Errors
Intelligent Inspection Functions
Summary
Cross-References
References
Part IV: Industrial Domains
34 NDE 4.0 in Civil Engineering
Introduction
State-of-the-Art and Quantitative Use of NDE-CE Data for Construction Assessment
Data Management for NDE-CE 4.0
NDE-CE 4.0 in Building Information Modeling
Recommendations and Standards for NDE-CE
Conclusion and Outlook
Cross-References
References
35 NDE 4.0 in Railway Industry
Introduction
Railway Assets and Detection Techniques
Defects in Wheels
Defects in Rails
NDT Techniques in Railway
Wheelset Inspection
In-service Wheelset Comprehensive Intelligent Detection System
Phase One: Daily Online Inspection
Phase Two: Periodic Online Wheel Inspection
Phase Three: Periodic Offline Wheel Inspection
IoT and Intelligent Diagnosis of In-service Wheelsets
Fault Diagnosis
Health Assessment
Life Time Prediction
In-service Wheelset Condition-Based Maintenance (CM)
State of the Art in Maintenance Research
Digital Twin of Wheelset
Digital Twin Diagnosis System of Wheelset
Rail Inspection
In-service Rail Inspection System
Portable Devices
Manually Pushed Rail Flaw Detector
Electric Trolley for Ultrasonic Rail Flaw Detection
High-Speed Rail Flaw Detection Vehicle
Exploration of In-service Rail Condition Maintenance
Summary
Cross-References
References
36 NDE in The Automotive Sector
Introduction
Industry and NDE 4.0
Industry/NDE 4.0 in the Automotive Industry
Automotive Body Assembly
Signal/Image Processing in NDE
The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Industry/NDE 4.0
Case Study: Real-Time In-Line Resistance Spot Weld Analysis
Introduction
Principle of Operation
Teaching AI to Interpret Ultrasonic M-scans of Resistance Spot Welds
Introduction
Application of AI
Feedback and Adaptive Process Control
Future Applications for Post-Process Inspections
Resistance Spot Welding
Adhesive Bonding
Laser Brazing
Polymers
Summary
Cross-References
References
37 Applications of NDE 4.0 Cases in the Automotive Industry
Introduction
NDT 4.0 Process in the Automotive Industry
NDE 4.0 Visual Detection of Paint Defects in Series Production
Types of Defects in the Automotive Paint Shop
Measuring Devices for Visual Inspection in Series Production
Strip Light Method for Paint Defect Detection
Deflectometry Method for Paint Defect Detection
Characteristic Extraction of Paint Defects
Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing of Fold-Adhesive Bonds
Fold-Adhesive Bonds
Process-Related Sources of Defect and Their Impact on the Quality of the Folding Bonding
Destructive Testing Methods for Assessing the Quality of Fold-Adhesive Bonds
Nondestructive Testing of Fold-Adhesive Bonds
Phased Array Ultrasonic System for Testing Fold-Adhesive Bonds
Integration of the Test into the Process Chain
Model-Based Probe Development and Testing
Testing and Destructive Testing for Validation
Summary
Cross-References
References
38 Digital Twin and Its Application for the Maintenance of Aircraft
Introduction
The Concept of Digital Twin
The Development of Aircraft Maintenance
Digital Twin for Aircraft Maintenance
System Architecture
System Implementation
Health Status Evaluation
Future Status Prediction
Maintenance Activity Management
Cases Study of Digital Twin for Aircraft Maintenance
Case for Health Status Evaluation
Case for Future Status Prediction
Case for Maintenance Activity Management
Summary and Future Challenges
Cross-References
References
39 NDE in Energy and Nuclear Industry
Introduction
NDE Inspections
Motivation
Context of NPPs
Inspection Qualification in NPPs
Input Information for Inspection in NPPs
NDE Inspection Simulation
NDE Inspection System
Structural Integrity Assessment and NDE Inspections
Elements of an NDE Inspection System
Developing an NDE Inspection Procedure
Inspection Data Flow
Case Study 1: Inspection of Reactor Pressure Vessel
Characteristics of the Component [48]
Inspection System
Inspection Deployment
Case Study 2: Inspection of Steam Generator Tubes
Characteristics of the Component [50]
Inspection System
Inspection Deployment
Road to NDE 4.0
Starting Point
Approach
Analysis of NDE Inspections in NPPs
Summary
Cross-References
Appendix A
References
40 NDE in Oil, Gas, and Petrochemical Facilities
Introduction
NDE 4.0: Cyber-physical NDE Systems and Industry Standards
Interoperability
Information Transparency
Technical Assistance
Artificial Intelligence
Robotics
Decentralized Decisions
Summary
Cross-References
References
Part V: Business
41 Best Practices for NDE 4.0 Adoption
Introduction
Strategic Roadmap Creation
Purpose Clarity
Technology Selection and Integration
Adoption Roadmap
Innovation Value Chain
Market Insight
Structured Ideation
Purposeful Qualification
Creative Execution
Value Chain is a Multilayer Filter
Network of Excellence
ISO 56002:2019 Innovation Management System - Guidance
Technical Challenges
Existing Inspection Standards and Standards Development Process
Interface Standards for Digitalization of NDE
Validation
Organization Practices
Leadership
Management
Talent
Role of Gender
Ethics
Summary
Cross-References
References
42 Estimating Economic Value of NDE 4.0
Introduction
Economic Impact of NDE 4.0
Key Performance Indicators (KPI)
Total Cost of Ownership
Qualitative Performance
Quantitative Performance
Availability
Equipment Efficiency
Return of Investment
Investment Evaluation
Value Generation
Efficiency and Effectiveness
Types of Innovation
The Cost of Risk
NDE 4.0 in Practice
The Evolution of Industry 4.0
Robotics
Artificial Intelligence and Big Data
Additive Manufacturing and Computed Tomography
Digitalization: Cloud and Connectivity
The Impact of NDE 4.0
Incremental Innovation: Efficiency
Incremental Innovation: Effectiveness
Disruptive Innovation: Paradigm Shifts
Summary
Cross-References
References
43 Ethics in NDE 4.0: Perspectives and Possibilities
Introduction
Ethics Overview
Normative Ethics
Ethics and Morals
Perspectives
Defining a New Ethic for Technology
Disrupting Trust
Ethical Debate
Ethics and the Fourth Revolution
The Hard Conversation from Rapid Change
Current State
Helping Resolve Existing Ethical Concerns
Raising New Ethical Concerns
Data Application and Ethical Issues in Context of NDE
Recourse and Accountability
Bias and Fairness
Feedback Loops
Information Integrity
Privacy and Surveillance
Language and Training
Data Projects
Data Regulation
Information Transparency
Markkula Center for Applied Ethics
Summary of Perspectives
Possibilities
Ethical Principles for AI in NDE 4.0
Responsibility
Equity
Traceability
Reliability
Governance
Data Management
Building and Sustaining Ethical Machines
Digital Transformation Review Board
DTRB Constitution
DTRB Norms
Summary
Cross-References
References
44 Training and Workforce Re-Orientation
A Guide to the Content of the Chapter
Introduction
The Professional and Human Perspective of NDE Practitioners
The Stage of the NDE Profession
NDE as a Professional Path
NDE Roles
Basic Education Towards an NDE Career
Education of NDE Practitioners as Proposed by Different Certification Standards
The Role of Mentors
The Role of Networks
The Professional and Human Perspective of the NDE Trainer
Ethics
NDE Competencies
Teaching Competencies
Alternative Resources for Training
Online Training Platforms
Self-Driven Learning Processes
Collective Learning and Communities´ Development
Education 4.0 for Industry 4.0 (and Society 5.X)
What Is Education 4.0
Conceptual Frameworks for Transitioning
Evolutionary and Disruptive Modification in Education Models
Re-training of Workforce
The Evolution of the NDE Instructor Role
The Evolution of NDE Mentorship
The Path Ahead: The NDE Practitioner in the Industry 4.0 Era
Training for Stable, Evolved, and New Roles of Practitioners
The Role of Companies
The Role of Academic Institutions
The Role of Platforms
A Personal Business Model for NDE Students, Practitioners, Mentors, and Instructors
The Human Perspective
Summary
Cross-References
References
45 Are We Ready for NDE 5.0
Introduction
The Four Industrial Revolutions
The Five Social Revolutions
The Flip Side of Revolutions
The Discussion Surrounding the Fifth Industrial Revolution
In the Context of Human Role
In the Context of Human Values
Does the Use of Term Industry 5.0 Make Sense Today?
The Four Revolutions in NDE
Does the Use of Term NDE 5.0 Make Sense Today?
The Fifth Era
The Digital-Physical-Biological Confluence
Futuristic NDE Possibilities
Summary and Outlook
Cross-References
References
Index