Handbook of Biodegradable Polymers

✍ Scribed by Bastioli C. (ed.)

• Publisher: Smithers Rapra Technology Ltd
• Year: 2014
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 733
• Edition: 2
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Biodegradable polymers are niche but ever-expanding market materials finding focused applications in sectors where biodegradability, together with the performances they attain during use, offers systematic environmental benefits: agricultural applications, packaging, catering, hygiene and slow release items.
They represent a highly promising solution, since they have the potential to overcome environmental concerns such as the decreasing availability of landfill space and the depletion of petrochemical resources, and also offer a sustainable alternative option to mechanical and chemical recycling.
Handbook of Biodegradable Polymers, 2nd Edition is a complete guide to the subject of biodegradable polymers and is ideal for those new to the subject or those wanting to supplement their existing knowledge.

This handbook covers the mechanisms of degradation in various environments, by both biological and nonbiological means, and the methods for measuring biodegradation. It also provides a discussion of international and national standards and certification procedures developed to ensure accurate communication of a material’s biodegradability between producers, authorities and consumers.
This updated edition of the handbook goes on to consider the characteristics, processability and application areas of biodegradable polymers, with key polymer family groups discussed(polyhydroxyalkanoates, starch, lactic acid-based polymers, aliphatic-aromatic polyesters and protein-based materials), to explore the role of biodegradable polymers in different waste management practices including anaerobic digestion, and to consider topics such as the different types of biorefineries for renewable monomers used in producing the building blocks for biodegradable polymers.

✦ Table of Contents

Cover
Half Title
Handbook of Biodegradable Polymers
Copyright
Acknowledgments
Preface
Contents
1. Methods for Evaluating the Biodegradability of Environmentally Degradable Polymers
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background
1.3 Defining ‘Biodegradability’
1.4 Mechanisms of Polymer Degradation
1.4.1 Nonbiological Degradation of Polymers
1.4.2 Biological Degradation of Polymers
1.5 Measuring the Biodegradation of Polymers
1.5.1 Enzyme Assays
1.5.1.1 Principle
1.5.1.2 Applications
1.5.1.3 Drawbacks
1.5.2 Plate Tests
1.5.2.1 Principle
1.5.2.2 Applications
1.5.2.3 Drawbacks
1.5.3 Respiration Tests
1.5.3.1 Principle
1.5.3.2 Applications
1.5.3.3 Suitability
1.5.4 Gas (CO2 or CH4 ) Evolution Tests
1.5.4.1 Principle
1.5.4.2 Applications
1.5.4.3 Suitability
1.5.5 Radioactively Labelled Polymers
1.5.5.1 Principle and Applications
1.5.5.2 Drawbacks
1.5.6 Laboratory-scale Simulated Accelerating Environments
1.5.6.1 Principle
1.5.6.2 Applications
1.5.6.3 Drawbacks
1.5.7 Natural Environments, Field Trials
1.6 Conclusions
References
2. Biodegradation Behaviour of Polymers in Liquid Environments
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Degradation in Real Liquid Environments
2.2.1 Degradation in Freshwater and Marine Environment
2.2.1.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
2.2.1.2 Synthetic Polyesters
2.3 Degradation in Laboratory Tests Simulating Real Aquatic Environments
2.3.1 Aerobic Liquid Environments
2.3.2 Anaerobic Liquid Environments
2.4 Degradation in Laboratory Tests with Optimised and Defined Liquid Media
2.5 Standard Tests for Biodegradable Polymers using Liquid Media
2.6 Summary
References
3. Environmental Fate and Ecotoxicity Assessment of Biodegradable Polymers
3.1 Introduction
3.2 End of Life Scenarios of Biodegradable Polymers
3.2.1 Biodegradation End Products
3.2.2 Biodegradation during Organic Recycling
3.2.2.1 Industrial Composting
3.2.2.2 Home Composting
3.2.2.3 Anaerobic Digestion
3.2.3 Biodegradation in Soil
3.2.3.1 Soil Texture and Structure
3.2.3.2 Water Content
3.2.3.3 Organic Matter
3.2.3.4 pH
3.2.3.5 Temperature
3.2.3.6 Oxygen
3.2.3.7 Sunlight
3.3 Investigation into Polymer Biodegradation
3.3.1 Standard on Industrial Composting
3.3.2 Identification of the Intermediates of Polymer Biodegradation
3.4 Environmental Fate of Biodegradation Intermediates
3.4.1 Physico-chemical Properties and Behaviour of Intermediates
3.4.1.1 Ready Biodegradability
3.4.1.2 Bioconcentration Factor
3.4.2 Ecotoxicological Assessment based on the Environmental Behaviour of the Intermediates
3.5 Ecotoxicological Assessment of Biodegradation Intermediates
3.5.1 Aquatic Toxicity
3.5.1.1 Bacteria
3.5.1.2 Algae
3.5.1.3 Crustacea
3.5.1.4 Fish
3.5.2 Terrestrial Toxicity
3.5.2.1 Bacteria
3.5.2.2 Invertebrates
3.5.2.3 Plants
3.5.2.4 Vertebrates
3.6 Discussion and Conclusions
References
4. Ecotoxicological Aspects of the Biodegradation Process of Polymers
4.1 Preface
4.2 The Need for Ecotoxicity Analysis of Biodegradable Materials
4.3 Standards and Regulations for Testing Biodegradable Polymers
4.4 Detection of the Influences on an Ecosystem caused by the Biodegradation of Polymers
4.4.1 Potential Influences of Polymers after Composting
4.4.2 Potential Influences of Polymers during and after Biodegradation in Soil and Sediment
4.5 A Short Introduction to Ecotoxicology
4.5.1 Dose-response Relationships
4.5.2 Investigation Level of Ecotoxicity Tests
4.5.3 Length of the Exposure Period
4.5.4 End-points
4.5.5 The Difference between Toxicity Tests and Bioassays
4.5.6 Ecotoxicity Profile Analysis
4.6 Recommendations and Standard Procedures for Biotests
4.6.1 Bioassays with Higher Plant Species
4.6.2 Bioassays with Earthworms (Eisenia foetida)
4.6.3 Preparation of Elutriates for Aquatic Ecotoxicity Tests
4.6.4 Bioassays with Algae
4.6.5 Bioassays with Luminescent Bacteria
4.6.6 Bioassays with Daphnia
4.6.7 Biotests with Higher Aquatic Plants
4.7 Evaluation of Bioassay Results Obtained from Samples of Complex Composition
4.7.1 Testing of Solid Samples
4.7.2 Testing of Sediments
4.8 Special Prerequisites to be Considered when Applying Bioassays for Biodegradable Polymers
4.8.1 Nutrients in the Sample
4.8.2 Biodegradation Intermediates
4.8.3 Diversity of the Microbial Population
4.8.4 Humic Substances
4.9 Evaluation of Test Results and Limits of Bioassays
4.10 Research Results for Ecotoxicity Testing of Biodegradable Polymers
4.10.1 The Relationship between Chemical Structure, Biodegradation Pathways and the Formation of Potentially Ecotoxic Metabolites
4.10.2 Ecotoxicity of Polymers
4.10.3 Ecotoxic Effects appearing after Degradation in Compost or after Anaerobic Digestion
4.10.4 Ecotoxic Effects appearing during Degradation in Soil
4.11 Conclusion
4.11.1 Consequences of Test Schemes for Investigations on Biodegradable Polymers
4.11.2 Materials Intended for Organic Recovery
4.11.3 Materials Intended for Applications in the Environment
4.11.4 Final Statement
References
5. International and National Norms on Biodegradability and Certification Procedures
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Organisations for Standardisation
5.3 Norms on Biodegradation Test Methods
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Aquatic, Aerobic Biodegradation Tests
5.3.2.1 Based on Carbon Conversion (‘Sturm’ Test)
5.3.2.2. Based on Oxygen Consumption (‘MITI’ Test)
5.3.2.3. Other
5.3.3. Compost Biodegradation Tests
5.3.3.1 Controlled Composting Test
5.3.3.2 Mineral Bed Composting Test
5.3.3.3 Other Compost Biodegradation Tests
5.3.4 Soil Biodegradation Tests
5.3.5 Aquatic, Anaerobic Biodegradation Tests
5.3.6 High Solids, Anaerobic Biodegradation Tests
5.3.6.1 Landfill Simulation Tests
5.3.7 Marine Biodegradation Tests
5.3.8 Other Biodegradation Tests
5.4 Norms on Disintegration Test Methods
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Compost Disintegration Tests
5.4.3 Disintegration in Water
5.4.4 Disintegration in other Environments
5.5 Norms on Specifications for Degradability
5.5.1 Introduction
5.5.2 (Industrial) Compostability
5.5.3 (Home) Compostability
5.5.4 Soil Biodegradability
5.5.5 Aquatic Biodegradability
5.5.6 Marine Biodegradability
5.5.7 Anaerobic Digestion
5.5.8 Oxo-degradation
5.6 Certification
5.6.1 Introduction
5.6.2 (Industrial) Compostability Certification Systems
5.6.2.1 Seedling
5.6.2.2 OK Compost
5.6.2.3 Biodegradable Products Institute Logo
5.6.2.4 Cedar Grove Logo
5.6.2.5 GreenPla Certification System
5.6.2.6 The Australasian Seedling Logo and Certification System
5.6.2.7 Other Certification and Logo Systems
5.6.3 (Home) Compostability Certification Systems
5.6.3.1 OK Compost Home
5.6.3.2 Other Systems for Home Compostability
5.6.4 Other Biodegradability Certification Systems
References
6. General Characteristics, Processability, Industrial Applications and Market Evolution of Biodegradable Polymers
6.1 General Characteristics
6.1.1 Polymer Biodegradation Mechanisms
6.1.2 Polymer Molecular Size, Structure and Chemical Composition
6.1.3 Biodegradable Polymer Classes
6.1.4 Natural Biodegradable Polymers
6.1.4.1 Starch
Figure 6.1 α-Amylose
Figure 6.2 Amylopectin
6.1.4.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
6.1.5 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers
6.1.5.1 Polylactic Acid and Polyglycolic Acid
6.1.5.2 Poly( ε-caprolactone)
6.1.5.3 Diol-Diacid Aliphatic Polyesters
6.1.5.4 Aliphatic/Aromatic Copolyesters
6.1.5.5 Polyvinyl Alcohol
6.1.6 Modified, Natural Biodegradable Polymers
6.2 Processability
6.2.1 Extrusion
6.2.2 Film Blowing and Casting
6.2.3 Moulding
6.2.4 Fibre Spinning
6.3 Industrial Applications
6.3.1 Compost Bags
6.3.2 Carrier Bags
6.3.3 Mulch Films
6.3.4 Other Applications
6.4 Market Evolution
6.5 Conclusions
References
7. Polyhydroxyalkanoates
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Production of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
7.3 The Various Types of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
7.3.1 Poly(R-3-hydroxybutyrate)
7.3.2 Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)
7.3.3 Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate)
7.3.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates Containing Medium-chain-length Monomers
7.3.5 Uncommon Constituents of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
7.4 Mechanisms of Polyhydroxyalkanoate Biosynthesis
7.4.1 Conditions that Promote the Biosynthesis and Accumulation of Polyhydroxyalkanoates in Microorganisms
7.4.2 Carbon Sources for the Production of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
7.4.3 Biochemical Pathways Involved in the Metabolism of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
7.4.4 The Key Enzyme of the Biosynthesis of Polyhydroxyalkanoates, Polyhydroxyalkanoate Synthase
7.5 Genetically Modified Systems and other Methods for the Production of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
7.5.1 Recombinant Escherichia coli
7.5.2 Transgenic Plants
7.5.3 In vitro Production of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
7.6 Biodegradation of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
7.7 Applications of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
7.7.1 Biomedical Applications
7.7.2 Industrial Applications
7.7.3 Agricultural Applications
7.8 Conclusions and Outlook
Acknowledgements
References
8. Starch-based Technology
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Starch
8.3 Starch-filled Plastics
8.4 Structural Starch Modifications
8.4.1 Starch Gelatinisation and Retrogradation
8.4.2 Starch Jet-cooking
8.4.3 Starch Extrusion Cooking
8.4.4 Starch Destructurisation in the Absence of Synthetic Polymers
8.4.5 Starch Destructurisation in the Presence of Synthetic Polymers
8.4.5.1 Ethylene-acrylic Acid Copolymer
8.4.5.2 Ethylene-vinyl Alcohol Copolymers
8.4.5.3 Polyvinyl Alcohol
8.4.5.4 Aliphatic Polyesters
8.4.5.5 Aliphatic-aromatic Polyesters
8.4.5.6 Other Polymers
8.4.6 Additional Information on Starch Complexation
8.5 Starch-based Materials on the Market
8.6 Conclusions
References
9. Lactic Acid-based Degradable Polymers
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Main Structural Characteristics of Lactic Acid Stereocopolymers
9.3 Synthesis of Lactic Acid-based Polymers
9.4 Main Material Properties
9.5 Degradation of Lactic Acid-based Polymers
9.6 Lactic Acid-based Copolymers
9.7 Interest in the Biomedical Field
9.8 Interest as Degradable Polymers in the Environment
9.9 Interest as Polymers from Renewable Resources
9.10 Conclusion
References
10. Biodegradable Polyesters
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Biodegradable Aliphatic Polyesters
10.2.1 Biodegradable Aliphatic Polyesters with a Hydroxyacid Repetitive Unit
10.2.1.1 Poly(ε-caprolactone)
10.2.1.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
10.2.1.3 Polylactic Acid
10.2.1.4 Polyglycolic Acid
10.2.1.5 Long Chain Polyhydroxyacid
10.2.2 Biodegradable Aliphatic Polyesters with a Diol/Dicarboxylic Acid Repetitive Unit
10.2.3 Aliphatic Polyesters Biodegradation
10.2.4 Properties of Biodegradable Aliphatic Polyesters
10.3 Biodegradable Aliphatic-Aromatic Copolyesters
10.3.1 Ecoflex
10.3.1.1 Producer/Patents: BASF AG, Germany [62−64]
10.3.2 Origo-Bi
10.3.2.1 Producer/Patents: Novamont [56-58]
10.3.3 Biocosafe 2003F
10.3.3.1 Producer: Zhejiang Hangzhou Xinfu Pharmaceutical Co. Ltd
10.3.4 S-EnPol
10.3.4.1 Producer: Samsung Fine Chemicals [70, 71]
10.3.5 Properties of Biodegradable Aliphatic-aromatic Copolyesters
10.3.6 Biodegradation of Aliphatic-aromatic Copolyesters
10.3.6.1 Polymer-related Parameters Determining Biodegradation
10.3.6.2 Degradation under Composting Conditions
10.3.6.3 Degradation in Soil
10.3.6.4 Degradation in an Aqueous Environment
10.3.6.5 Degradation under Anaerobic Conditions
10.3.6.6 Fate of Aromatic Sequences and Risk Assessment
10.4 Renewable Monomers for Biodegradable Polyester Synthesis
References
11. Material Formed from Proteins
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Structure of Material Proteins
11.3 Protein-based Materials
11.4 Formation of Protein-based Materials
11.4.1 The Solvent Process
11.4.2 The Thermoplastic Process
11.5 Properties of Protein-based Materials
11.6 Applications
References
12. Enzyme Catalysis in the Synthesis of Biodegradable Polymers
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Polyester Synthesis
12.2.1 Polycondensation of Hydroxyacids and Esters
12.2.2 Polymerisation of Dicarboxylic Acids or Their Activated Derivatives with Glycols
12.2.3 Ring-opening Polymerisation of Carbonates and other Cyclic Monomers
12.3 Oxidative Polymerisation of Phenol and Derivatives of Phenol
12.4 Enzymatic Polymerisation of Polysaccharides
12.5 Conclusions
Reference
13. Environmental Life Cycle of Biodegradable Plastics
13.1 Introduction to Life Cycle Thinking and Assessment
13.2 Bioplastics and Life Cycle Assessment
13.2.1 Biodegradability and Compostability
13.2.2 Renewable Origin
13.2.3 Optimisation Potential
13.3 Conclusions
References
14. The use of Biodegradable Polymers for the Optimisation of Models for the Source Separation and Composting of Organic Waste
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 The Development of Composting and Schemes for the Source Separation of Biowaste in Europe: A Matter of Quality
14.2 Main Drivers for Composting in the European Union
14.2.1 Directive 99/31/EC on Landfills
14.2.2 The Waste Framework Directive (Directive 2008/98/EC)
14.2.3 Other regulatory and Political Drivers
14.3 The Source Separation of Organic Waste: Schemes and Results in the South of Europe
14.4 'Biowaste', 'Vegetable, Garden and Fruit', and 'Food Waste': Relevance of a Definition on the Performance of the Waste Management System
14.5 The Importance of Biobags
14.5.1 Features of ‘Biobags’: The Importance of Biodegradability and its Cost-efficiency
14.6 Cost Assessment of Optimised Schemes
14.6.1 Tools to Optimise the Schemes and their Suitability in Different Situations
14.6.1.1 Collection Frequency for Residual Waste
14.6.1.2 Diversifying the Fleet of Collection Vehicles
14.7 Conclusions
References
15. Collection of Biowaste with Biodegradable and Compostable Plastic Bags and Treatment in Anaerobic Digestion Facilities: Advantages and Options for Optimisation
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Current European Policies regarding Biowaste, Renewable Energy, Emission Reduction and Resource Management
15.3 The Role of Compostable Plastic Bags in Biowaste Source Separation Scheme
15.4 Compostable Plastics in Anaerobic Digestion: Standards and Performance
15.5 Anaerobic Digestion Facilities Treating Biowaste: Technologies, Pretreatment Options and Management of Compostable Plastic Bags
15.5.1 Combined Anaerobic and Aerobic versus Anaerobic Only Processes: Pros and Cons
15.5.2 Dry and Wet Technologies
15.5.3 Different Anaerobic Digestion Technologies and Fate of Compostable Plastic Bags
15.6 Case Studies of Anaerobic Digestion Facilities Managing Biowaste in Compostable Plastic Bags
15.6.1 Case Study 1: Wet Codigestion with a Hydropulper: Compostable Bags can switch from Disposal (Route 3) to Material Recovery (Route 2)
15.6.2 Case Study 2: Wet Digestion with Screw Press/Mash Separation: Compostable Bags Skipping Digestion and going Directly to Material Recovery (Route 2)
15.6.3 Case Study 3: Dry Plug Flow Digestion: Compostable Bags going Partly to Digestion (Route 1) and Partly to Material Recovery (Route 2)
15.6.4 Case Study 4: Dry Batch Digestion: Compostable Bags going to Digestion followed by Material Recovery (Route 1)
References
16. Principles, Drivers, and Analysis of Biodegradable and Biobased Plastics
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Understanding Biodegradability – Biodegradable Compostable Plastics
16.3 Measuring and Reporting Biodegradability
16.4 International Standards for Biodegradability
16.5 Misleading Claims of Biodegradability
16.6 Environmental and Health Consequences
16.7 US Federal Trade Commission Green Guides
16.7.1 Degradable and Biodegradable Claims
16.7.2 Compostable Claims
16.7.3 Renewable Materials, Biobased Materials and Biobased Content
16.8 Biobased Plastics − Carbon Footprint Reductions using Plant/ Biomass Carbon and Value Proposition
16.8.1 Illustrating Zero Material Carbon Footprint using Basic Stoichiometric Calculations
16.8.2 Measuring Biobased Carbon Content
16.8.3 Calculating and Reporting Biobased Carbon Contents
16.9 Example of Bio Polyethylene Terephthalate
16.10 Summary
References
17. Biorefineries for Renewable Monomers
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Biorefinery Concepts
17.2.1 Starch and Sugar Biorefineries
17.2.2 Oilseed Biorefineries
17.2.3 Green Biorefinery
17.2.4 Lignocellulose Biorefinery
17.2.5 Aquatic Biorefinery
17.3 Monomers based on Renewable Raw Materials
17.4 Summary and Outlook
References
18. Research and Development Funding with the Focus on Biodegradable Products
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Policy Initiatives and Plans in the Field of Biopolymers and their Applications
18.2.1 The Lead Market Initiative
18.2.2 Key Enabling Technologies
18.2.3 The Innovation Union
18.2.4 The Bioeconomy Strategy
18.3 European Union-funded Research on Biopolymers and their Applications
18.3.1 Why the need for European Union-funded Research?
18.3.2 The Framework Programmes
18.3.3 Specific Programmes with Focus on Biopolymers and their Applications
18.4 The Seventh Framework Programme
18.5 Funded Projects: Biopolymers and their Applications
18.6 The Eco-innovation Initiative
18.7 Horizon 2020
References
Abbreviations
Index
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