Global navigation satellite systems : new technologies and applications

✍ Scribed by Basudeb Bhatta

• Year: 2021
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 387
• Edition: Second
• Category: Library

✦ Table of Contents

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Author
Acronyms
Chapter 1 Overview of GNSS
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition of GNSS
1.3 Navigation and Positioning
1.4 Points of Reference
1.5 History of Navigation Systems
1.5.1 The Celestial Age
1.5.2 The Radio Age
1.5.3 The Satellite Age
1.6 Satellite-Based Navigation and Positioning Systems
Chapter 2 Functional Segments of GNSS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Space Segment
2.2.1 GPS Space Segment
2.2.2 GLONASS Space Segment
2.2.3 Galileo Space Segment
2.2.4 BeiDou Space Segment
2.3 Control Segment
2.3.1 GPS Control Segment
2.3.2 GLONASS Control Segment
2.3.3 Galileo Control Segment
2.3.4 BeiDou Control Segment
2.4 User Segment
2.5 Summary and Comparison of the Four Systems
Chapter 3 Working Principle of GNSS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Triangulation and Trilateration
3.3 Almanac and Ephemeris
3.4 Time and Range
3.5 Number of Satellites
3.6 Time Synchronisation
3.7 Satellite Orbit and Location
3.8 Signal-Related Parameters
Chapter 4 GNSS Signals and Range Determination
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Concepts of Radio Waves
4.2.1 Electromagnetic Wave
4.2.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum
4.2.3 Source of Radio Waves
4.2.4 Strength of Radio Waves
4.2.5 Radio Transmitter and Receiver
4.3 GNSS Signals—Carriers and Codes
4.4 Information Carried by GNSS Signal
4.5 Navigation Message
4.5.1 GNSS Time
4.5.2 Satellite Clocks
4.5.3 Broadcast Ephemeris
4.5.4 Atmospheric Correction
4.5.5 Broadcast Almanac
4.5.6 Satellite Health
4.6 Ranging Codes
4.7 Modulated Carrier Wave and Phase Shift
4.8 Observables—Pseudorange and Carrier Phase
4.8.1 Encoding by Phase Modulation
4.9 Pseudorange Measurement
4.9.1 Autocorrelation
4.9.2 Lock and Time Shift
4.9.3 Pseudoranging Equation
4.10 Carrier Phase Measurement
4.10.1 Doppler Effect
4.10.2 Carrier Phase Measurement Equation
Chapter 5 Errors and Accuracy Issues
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Impacts of Errors in Pseudoranges
5.3 Satellite Clock Error
5.3.1 Relativistic Effects on the Satellite Clock
5.3.2 Satellite Clock Drift
5.4 Atmospheric Effects
5.4.1 Ionospheric Delay
5.4.2 Tropospheric Delay
5.5 Multipath Signal
5.6 Receiver Clock Error
5.7 Receiver Noise
5.8 Orbital/Ephemeris Errors
5.8.1 Orbital Characteristics of Satellites
5.9 Other Accuracy Related Issues
5.9.1 Number of Satellites
5.9.2 Dilution of Precision
5.9.3 SA and AS
5.10 Estimation of Error Budget
Chapter 6 Positioning Methods
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Classification of Positioning
6.3 Point Positioning and Autonomous Positioning
6.4 Differential Positioning and Relative Positioning
6.4.1 Code-Based Differential Technique
6.4.1.1 Position Domain and Measurement Domain Differential Strategies
6.4.1.2 Real-Time and Post-Processed Techniques
6.4.1.3 Autonomous and Inverted Techniques
6.4.2 Carrier-Based Relative Technique
6.4.2.1 Single Difference
6.4.2.2 Double Difference
6.4.2.3 Triple Difference
6.5 Autonomous Positioning
6.6 Differential and Relative Correction Sources
6.6.1 Communication (Radio) Link
6.7 Processing Algorithms, Operational Mode and Other Enhancements
6.7.1 Software Enhancements
6.7.1.1 Clock-Aiding and Height-Aiding
6.7.1.2 Using Carrier Phase Data to Smooth Pseudorange Data
6.7.1.3 Kalman Filter
6.7.2 Hardware Enhancements: GNSS and Other Sensors
6.8 Miscellaneous Discussion
6.8.1 Online Data Processing Services
6.9 Summary of Positioning Methods
Chapter 7 GNSS Augmentations and Other Navigation Satellite Systems
7.1 Introduction
7.2 GNSS-1 and GNSS-2
7.3 GNSS Augmentations
7.3.1 Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems
7.3.1.1 EGNOS
7.3.1.2 WAAS
7.3.1.3 MSAS
7.3.1.4 GAGAN
7.3.1.5 SDCM
7.3.1.6 Other Government SBAS Systems
7.3.1.7 Commercial SBAS Systems
7.3.2 Ground-Based Augmentation Systems
7.3.2.1 LAAS
7.3.2.2 DGPS
7.3.2.3 Augmentation Services from Trimble, Leica, and Others
7.4 Regional Navigation Satellite Systems
7.4.1 Quasi-Zenith Satellite System
7.4.2 Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (NavIC)
7.5 Inertial Navigation System
7.6 Pseudolite
7.7 Interoperability and Integrity of GNSS
Chapter 8 GNSS Receivers
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Receiver Architecture
8.2.1 Receiver Antenna
8.2.2 RF Section
8.2.3 Microprocessor
8.2.4 Control and Display Unit
8.2.5 Storage Unit
8.2.6 Power Unit
8.2.7 Radio Modem
8.3 Signal Acquisition and Positioning
8.3.1 Doppler Shift
8.3.2 Time Shift
8.3.3 Integer Ambiguity
8.4 Classification of GNSS Receivers
8.5 Receiver Independent Exchange Format
8.6 Choosing a GNSS Receiver
8.7 GNSS Receiver Manufacturers
8.8 Smartphone for Survey
Chapter 9 Geodesy
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Coordinate System
9.2.1 Celestial Equatorial Coordinate System
9.2.2 Earth-Cantered Inertial Coordinate System
9.2.3 Geographical Coordinate System
9.2.4 Earth-Cantered Earth-Fixed Coordinate System
9.3 Shape of the Earth
9.4 Datum
9.4.1 WGS 1984 Datum
9.4.2 Indian Geodetic Datum
9.4.3 International Terrestrial Reference System
9.5 Ellipsoids and Datums Used in GNSS
9.5.1 GNSS and Height Measurement
9.6 Projection
9.6.1 Selection of Projection
9.6.2 Classification of Projections
9.6.2.1 Cylindrical Projections
9.6.2.2 Conical Projections
9.6.2.3 Azimuthal Projections
9.6.2.4 Miscellaneous Projections
9.6.3 Projection Parameters
9.6.3.1 Linear Parameters
9.6.3.2 Angular Parameters
9.6.4 Common Projections
9.6.4.1 Polyconic Projection
9.6.4.2 Lambert’s Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection
9.6.4.3 UTM Projection
9.6.4.4 Latitude/Longitude Geographic Coordinates
Chapter 10 Applications of GNSS
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Classification of GNSS Applications
10.3 Surveying and Mapping
10.3.1 Geodetic Control Survey
10.3.2 GIS Mapping
10.3.3 Structural Deformation Survey
10.3.4 Construction Stakeout and Grading
10.3.5 Coastal Engineering Surveys
10.3.6 Photogrammetric Mapping Control
10.3.7 Remote Sensing Applications Control Survey
10.3.8 Geophysics, Geology, and Archaeological Survey
10.4 Navigation
10.4.1 Automobile Navigation
10.4.2 Aircraft/UAV Navigation
10.4.3 Maritime Navigation
10.4.4 Machine Control and Navigation
10.4.5 Navigation for Bicyclers, Hikers, Climbers, and Pedestrians
10.4.6 Space Flight and Satellite Navigation
10.5 Tracking
10.5.1 Fleet Management
10.5.2 Parking Automation
10.5.3 Tracking of Spacecraft
10.5.4 Tracking of People
10.6 Time-Related Applications
10.7 Geodesy
10.8 Civil Engineering
10.9 Location-Based Services
10.10 Scientific and Research Applications
10.10.1 Atmospheric Study
10.10.2 Tectonics and Seismology
10.11 Animal Surveillance and Wildlife Applications
10.12 Military Applications
10.13 Precision Agriculture
10.14 Other Applications
Chapter 11 Surveying with GNSS
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Surveying Techniques
11.3 Equipment
11.4 Planning the Survey
11.5 General Factors for GNSS Surveying
11.5.1 Accuracy
11.5.2 Obstructions
11.5.3 Length of Baselines
11.5.4 Occupation Time
11.5.5 Recording Rate
11.5.6 Measurement Redundancy
11.5.7 Satellite Geometry
11.5.8 Control Requirements
11.5.9 Loop Closures and Baseline Differences
11.5.10 Network Adjustment
11.5.10.1 Minimally Constrained Adjustment
11.5.10.2 Constrained Adjustment
11.5.10.3 Error Ellipses
11.5.10.4 Independent Baselines
11.5.11 Independent Reoccupation of Stations
11.5.12 Point or Line Offset
11.5.13 Float Solution
11.6 Observation Methods
11.6.1 Classic Static Technique
11.6.2 Rapid Static Technique
11.6.3 Pseudokinematic Technique
11.6.4 Stop-and-Go Technique
11.6.5 Continuous Kinematic Technique
11.6.6 Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) Techniques
11.7 Initialisation Techniques
11.7.1 On-the-Fly
11.7.2 Static Survey of New Point
11.7.3 Known Baseline or Known Point
11.7.4 Antenna Swap
11.7.5 Recommended RTK Initialisation Procedure
11.8 Personnel Management
Chapter 12 Mapping with GNSS
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Integration of Surveying Tools
12.2.1 Achieving Instrument Independence
12.2.2 GNSS Technology
12.2.3 Optical Total Station Technology
12.2.4 Servo-Driven and Robotic Optical Total Stations
12.2.5 Impact on Surveying Operations
12.3 Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Survey
12.3.1 Class/Order of Survey
12.3.2 Positional Accuracy
12.4 Remote Sensing and Photogrammetric Control Point
12.5 Intelligent Map and GNSS
12.6 Map-aided Positioning and Navigation
12.7 Scale, Detail, Accuracy, and Resolution of Map
Glossary
References
Index