Cover
Contents
Preface
About the author
Chapter 1
How is a geotechnical finite element analysis set up?
1.1. Analysis planning
1.1.1 Does FE analysis need to be used?
1.1.2 What are the aims of the FE analysis?
1.1.3 What information needs to be gathered?
1.1.4 Which FE analysis software should be used?
1.1.5 How will the FE analysis fit into the design process?
1.2. Geometry
1.2.1 2D or 3D?
1.2.2 How detailed does the geometry need to be?
1.2.3 Where should model boundaries be located?
1.2.4 What fixities are applied at the model boundaries?
1.3. Meshing
1.3.1 Which element types should be used?
1.3.2 What makes a good FE mesh?
1.4. Analysis stages
1.4.1 How are the initial stresses set up?
1.4.2 How are the construction stages set up?
1.4.3 Which calculation options should be chosen?
1.5. Constitutive models
1.5.1 Which constitutive model should be used?
1.6. Groundwater and drainage
1.6.1 How are the effects of groundwater included in the analysis?
1.6.2 Should a drained, undrained or consolidation analysis be performed?
References
Cashman PM and Preene M (2012)
Chillery M (2014)
Clear CA and Harrison RA (1985)
Engin HK, Brinkgreve RBJ and Van Tol AF (2015)
Hicks MA, Dijkstra J, Lloret-Cabot M and Karstunen M (2013)
Lings ML, Ng CWW and Nash DFT (1994)
Sloan SW (2013)
Soga K, Alonso E, Yerro A, Kumar K and Bandara S (2016)
Chapter 2
How are constitutive models selected?
2.1. Introduction
2.1.1 What is a constitutive model?
2.1.2 Why is it important to use appropriate constitutive models?
2.1.3 How is the appropriateness of a constitutive model judged?
2.2. Aspects of ground behaviour
2.2.1 Which aspects of soil behaviour may need to be considered?
2.2.2 Which aspects of rock behaviour may need to be considered?
2.2.3 When can FE analysis be used for rocks?
2.3. Common constitutive model types
2.3.1 How do constitutive models commonly account for the elastic behaviour of soils?
2.3.2 How do constitutive models commonly account for the plastic behaviour of soils?
2.3.3 How do constitutive models commonly account for rock behaviour?
2.4. Typical applications
References
Al-Tabbaa A and Wood DM (1989)
Baudet B and Stallebrass S (2004)
Benz T, Vermeer PA and Schwab R (2009)
Bjerrum L (1967)
Clayton CRI (2011)
DeMaggio FL and Sandler IS (1971)
Duncan JM and Chang CY (1970)
Ganendra D and Potts DM (1995)
Grimstad G, Andresen L and Jostad HP (2012)
Gudehus G (1996)
Hoek E, Carranza-Torres CT and Corkum B (2002)
Hoek E and Marinos P (2007)
Jardine RJ, Potts DM, Fourie AB and Burland JB (1986)
Kavvadas M and Amorosi A (2000)
Kolymbas D (1991)
Kondner RL (1963)
Lade PV (1977)
Matsuoka H and Nakai T (1974)
Mogi K (1971)
Muir Wood D (1991)
Roscoe KH and Burland JB (1968)
Rouainia M and Muir Wood D (2000)
Schanz T, Vermeer PA and Bonnier PG (1999)
Schweiger HF, Wiltafsky C, Scharinger F and Galavi V (2009)
Sekiguchi H and Ohta H (1977)
Stallebrass SE and Taylor RN (1997)
Vermeer PA (1978)
von Wolffersdorff PA (1996)
Wheeler SJ, Nรครคtรคnen A, Karstunen M and Lojander M (2003)
Whittle AJ (1993)
Yin JH, Zhu JG and Graham J (2002)
Chapter 3
How are soil and rock parameters obtained?
3.1. Introduction
3.1.1 Why is it difficult to obtain accurate geotechnical parameters?
3.1.2 How is parameter testing of soil planned in a site investigation?
3.1.3 How is the site information needed to perform FE analysis of rock masses obtained?
3.2. Soil and rock sampling and groundwater measurement
3.2.1 Why is sample quality important?
3.2.2 How are high-quality samples obtained?
3.2.3 What are the common causes of soil sample disturbance and how can they be minimised?
3.2.4 Can soil sample quality be measured?
3.2.5 How is groundwater pressure measured in the field?
3.3. Parameter testing
3.3.1 How is the triaxial cell used to obtain soil and rock parameters?
3.3.2 How can the other standard laboratory tests be used to obtain soil and rock parameters?
3.3.3 How are parameters obtained from in situ tests?
3.3.4 How are parameters obtained from the pressuremeter test?
3.3.5 How can stiffness be measured using in situ seismic testing?
3.3.6 What parameters can be obtained from other in situ test methods?
3.3.7 How is permeability measured in situ?
3.4. Parameter derivation and validation
3.4.1 How are parameters derived from test results?
3.4.2 How are parameters assessed for accuracy?
3.4.3 Are there other sources of parameters?
Appendix 3.1
References
ASTM (2012)
Bellotti R, Ghionna V, Jamiolkowski M, Robertson PK and Peterson RW (1989)
Binns A (1998)
Bolton MD and Lau CK (1993)
Bond A and Harris A (2008)
Brinkgreve RBJ, Engin E and Engin HK (2010)
BSI (1990)
Butcher AP, Campanella RG, Kaynia AM and Massarsch KR (2005)
Cashman PM and Preene M (2012)
CEN (2004)
CEN (2007)
Chandler RJ, Leroueil S and Trenter NA (1990)
Clarke BG (1995)
Clayton CRI (1995)
Clayton CRI (2011)
Clayton CRI and Heymann G (2001)
Clayton CRI and Siddique A (1999)
Clayton CRI and Symons IF (1992)
Clayton CRI, Matthews MC and Simons NE (1995)
Clayton CRI, Woods RI, Bond AJ and Milititsky J (2013)
Contreras IA, Grosser AT and VerโขStrate RH (2008)
Day RW (2000)
Duncan JM, Byrne PM, Wang KS and Mabry P (1980)
Dunnicliff J (1993)
Dunnicliff J (2009)
Fioravante V, Jamiolkowski M, Lo Presti DCF, Manfredini G and Pedroni S (1998)
Frank R, Bauduin C, Driscoll RMC, Kavvadas M, Krebs Ovesen N, Orr TLL and Schuppener B (2004)
Hardin BO (1978)
Head KH and Epps R (2014)
Hight DW (2003)
Hight DW, McMillan F, Powell JJM, Jardine RJ and Allenou CP (2003)
Hoek E (2000)
Hoek E and Franklin JA (1968)
Houslby GT (2001)
Houlsby GT and Withers NJ (1988)
Houlsby GT, Wroth CP and Clarke BG (1986)
Hughes JMO, Wroth CP and Windle D (1977)
ISO (2002)
ISO (2003)
ISO (2004a)
ISO (2004b)
ISO (2005)
ISO (2006)
Jamiolkowski M, Ladd CC, Germaine JT and Lancellotta R (1985)
Jardine RJ, St John HD, Hight DW and Potts DM (1991)
Karlsrud K, Lunne T, Kort DA and Strandvik S (2005)
Ladd CC and DeGroot DJ (2003)
Lade PV (1977)
Landon MM, DeGroot DJ and Sheahan TC (2007)
Lees AS (2012)
Lings ML, Pennington DS and Nash DFT (2000)
Look B (2007)
LoโขPresti DCF, Shibuya S and Rix GJ (2001)
Low HE, Randolph MF, Lunne T, Andersen KH and Sjursen MA (2011)
Lunne T, Berre T and Strandvik S (1997)
Marsland A and Randolph MF (1977)
Matsuoka H and Nakai T (1974)
Mayne PW and Kulhawy M (1982)
McKenna GT (1995)
Mesri G (1975)
Mikkelsen PE and Green GE (2003)
Muir Wood D (1990)
Nishimura S, Minh NA and Jardine RJ (2007)
Ochiai H and Lade PV (1983)
Oda M, Koshikawa I and Higuchi T (1978)
Oh WT and Vanapalli SK (2008)
OโNeill DA (1985)
Orr TLL and Farrell ER (2011)
Pantelidou H and Simpson B (2007)
Pennington DS, Nash DFT and Lings ML (1997)
Potts DM and Zdravkovic L (1999)
Potts DM and Zdravkovic L (2001)
Prapaharan S, Chameau JL and Holtz RD (1989)
Ratnam S, Soga K and Whittle RW (2005)
Richart Jr FE, Hall Jr JR and Woods RD (1970)
Ridley AM and Burland JB (1993)
Sayao A and Vaid YP (1996)
Schmidt B (1966)
Schnaid F (2009)
Schnaid F and Houlsby GT (1992)
Seah TH (1990)
Sukolrat J, Nash DFT and Benahmed N (2008)
Symes MJ (1983)
Vaid P and Campanella RG (1974)
Whittle RW, Hawkins PG and Dalton JCP (1995)
Wong RKS and Arthur JRF (1985)
Wroth CP (1975)
Yu HS (2004)
Yu HS and Collins IF (1998)
Zdravkovic L, Potts DM and Hight DW (2002)
Chapter 4
How are groundwater effects taken into account?
4.1. Introduction
4.1.1 How are saturated, partially saturated and dry soils modelled?
4.1.2 What do the different pore pressure terms mean?
4.2. Drained and undrained analyses
4.2.1 What do the terms drained and undrained mean?
4.2.2 When are drained or undrained assumptions appropriate?
4.2.3 How is drained analysis performed?
4.2.4 How is undrained analysis performed?
4.2.5 Why is the prediction of cu in Method A often inaccurate?
4.3. Groundwater flow analyses
4.3.1 What types of groundwater flow analysis are performed?
4.3.2 Why is it difficult to simulate unconfined flow?
4.3.3 What do the different hydraulic boundary conditions mean?
4.4. Consolidation analysis
4.4.1 When is a consolidation analysis necessary?
4.4.2 What is coupled consolidation analysis?
4.4.3 Can loading and consolidation be performed in the same stage?
References
Fredlund DG, Rahardjo H and Fredlund MD (2012)
Gens A, Sanchez M and Sheng D (2006)
Mansikkamรคki J (2015)
Vermeer PA and Meier CP (1998)
Chapter 5
How are geotechnical structures modelled?
5.1. Structural geometry
5.1.1 What types of elements are used for structures?
5.1.2 Should continuum or non-continuum elements be used for structures?
5.1.3 How are ground-structure interfaces modelled?
5.1.4 How are the common geotechnical structure types modelled?
5.1.5 How are structures modelled in 2D with the plane strain or axisymmetric assumption?
5.1.6 How is geometrical anisotropy in structures handled?
5.1.7 How are structural connections modelled?
5.1.8 How are distributed loads applied in an FE model?
5.1.9 What are singularities?
5.2. Structural materials
5.2.1 Can linear elastic models be used for concrete and grouted structures?
5.2.2 Can linear elastic models be used for steel structures?
5.3. Soil-structure interaction
5.3.1 How does relative soil/structure stiffness influence outputs?
5.3.2 How are coefficients of subgrade reaction determined for beam-spring models?
References
Addenbrooke TI, Ong JCW and Potts DM (2002)
Bourne-Webb PJ, Potts DM, Kรถnig D and Rowbottom D (2011)
Brookes CL (2016)
CEN (2004)
Dong YP, Burd HJ and Houlsby GT (2016)
Lees AS (2017)
Li Z, Soga K and Wright P (2015)
Mรถller SC and Vermeer PA (2005)
Muir Wood AM (1975)
Panet M and Guenot A (1982)
Rombach GA (2011)
Schรคdlich B and Schweiger HF (2014)
Soga K, Bolton MD, Au SKA, Komiya K, Hamelin JP, van Cotthem A, Buchet G and Michel JP (2000)
Tschuchnigg F and Schweiger HF (2015)
Wang F, Huang H, Soga K, Li Z, Zhang D and Tsuno K (2012)
Wisser C, Augarde CE and Burd HJ (2005)
Zdravkovic L, Potts DM and St John HD (2005)
Chapter 6
Can FE analysis be used with design codes?
6.1. Introduction
6.1.1 Why perform geotechnical design with FE analysis instead of conventional methods?
6.1.2 What influences the occurrence of a limit state apart from ground strength (for ULS) and stiffness (for SLS)?
6.1.3 How can the reliability of designs by FE analysis be checked?
6.2. Serviceability limit state (SLS)
6.2.1 How is the SLS verified using FE analysis?
6.3. Geotechnical ultimate limit state (ULS)
6.3.1 How is the ULS verified using FE analysis?
6.3.2 How are partial factors applied in FE analysis?
6.3.3 What values should the partial factors have?
6.3.4 Should ground stiffness be factored as well as strength?
6.3.5 How can strength reduction be performed?
6.3.6 Can geotechnical resistances be calculated by FE analysis?
6.3.7 What partial factors are applied to undrained shear strength in FE analysis?
6.3.8 Can ultimate limit states be verified in rock masses using FE analysis?
6.4. Structural limit states
6.4.1 How are structural limit states verified in soil-structure interaction problems?
References
Benz T, Schwab R, Kauther RA and Vermeer PA (2007)
Fenton GA and Griffiths DV (2008)
Hammah RE, Yacoub TE, Corkum B, Wibowo F and Curran JH (2007)
Lees A (2013)
Potts DM and Zdravkovic L (2012)
Sloan SW (2013)
Smith C and Gilbert M (2011a)
Smith C and Gilbert M (2011b)
Tschuchnigg F, Schweiger HF, Sloan SW, Lyamin AV and Raissakis I (2015)
Chapter 7
How is the accuracy of outputs assessed?
7.1. Introduction
7.1.1 Does the accuracy of every geotechnical FE analysis need to be checked?
7.1.2 Who is responsible for the accuracy of an FE model?
7.1.3 What are the potential sources of error in an FE analysis?
7.2. Assessing accuracy
7.2.1 What is the difference between verification and validation?
7.2.2 How are outputs checked for accuracy?
7.3. Managing errors
7.3.1 If inaccuracy exists, how should this be managed?
7.3.2 What is the difference between sensitivity analysis and parametric study?
7.3.3 Over what range of parameters should a parametric study be undertaken?
7.3.4 What is the observational method?
References
Brinkgreve RBJ (2013)
CEN (2004)
Chillery M (2014)
Clayton CRI, Matthews MC and Simons NE (1995)
Clough GW and OโRourke TD (1990)
Duncan JM (2000)
Fenton GA and Griffiths DV (2008)
Peck RB (1969)
Sloan SW (2013)
Chapter 8
Examples
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Raft foundation with settlement-reducing piles example
8.2.1 Summary
8.2.2 Setting up the FE analysis model
8.2.3 Obtaining parameters and constitutive model features
8.2.4 Outputs
8.2.5 Validation
8.3. Shaft excavation example
8.3.1 Summary
8.3.2 Setting up the FE analysis model
8.3.3 Obtaining parameters and constitutive model features
8.3.4 Output
8.3.5 Validation
8.4. Embankment construction example
8.4.1 Summary
8.4.2 Setting up the FE analysis model
8.4.3 Obtaining parameters and constitutive model features
8.4.4 Output
8.4.5 Validation
References
Bellotti R, Ghionna V, Jamiolkowski M, Robertson PK and Peterson RW (1989)
Benz T, Vermeer PA and Schwab R (2009)
Clough GW and OโRourke TD (1990)
Duncan JM and Chang YC (1970)
Duncan JM, Byrne PM, Wang KS and Mabry P (1980)
Fraser RA and Wardle LJ (1976)
Hemsley JA (1998)
Hird CC, Pyrah IC, Russell D and Cinicioglu F (1995)
Houlsby GT, Wroth CP and Clarke BG (1986)
Hughes JMO, Wroth CP and Windle D (1977)
Jardine RJ, Potts DM, Fourie AB and Burland JB (1986)
Kjellman W (1948)
Kondner RL (1963)
Muir Wood D (1990)
Whittle RW (1999)
Zdravkovic L, Potts DM and Hight DW (2002)
Index