Gaseous Electronics: Theory and Practice

✍ Scribed by Gorur Govinda Raju

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2005
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 689
• Series: Electrical and Computer Engineering
• Edition: 1
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

The research on gaseous electronics reaches back more than 100 years. With the growing importance of gas lasers in so many research and industrial applications as well as power systems generating, transmitting, and distributing huge blocks of electrical power, the body of literature on cross sections, drift and diffusion, and ionization phenomena continues to bloom. Searching through this vast expanse of data is a daunting and time-consuming task. With this in mind, eminent researcher Gorur Govinda Raju presents an authoritative survey of the ballooning literature on gaseous electrical discharge.

Gaseous Electronics: Theory and Practice begins with an overview of the physics underlying the collisions involved in discharge, scattering, ion mobilities, and the various cross-sections and relations between them. A discussion follows on experimental techniques used to measure collision cross-sections, covering the techniques related to the data presented in later chapters. In an unprecedented collection of data and analysis, the author supplies comprehensive cross-sections for rare gases such as Argon, Helium, Krypton, and Xenon; various diatomics; and complex molecules and industrial gases including hydrocarbons. He further includes discussions and analyses on drift and diffusion of electrons, ionization coefficients, attachment coefficients, high-voltage phenomena, and high-frequency discharges.

Based on more than 40 years of experience in the field, Gaseous Electronics: Theory and Practice places a comprehensive collection of data together with theory and modern practice in a single, concise reference.

✦ Table of Contents

Contents......Page 17
1.1.1 LABORATORY COORDINATES......Page 25
1.1.2 CENTER OF MASS COORDINATES......Page 27
1.2 MEANING OF VELOCITY SPACE......Page 29
1.3 MAXWELL’S DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION......Page 32
1.4 MEAN FREE PATH......Page 34
1.5 PARTICLE COLLISIONS......Page 35
1.5.1 ELASTIC COLLISIONS......Page 36
1.5.2 ENERGY TRANSFER IN ELASTIC COLLISIONS......Page 39
1.5.3 DIFFERENTIAL SCATTERING CROSS SECTION......Page 41
1.5.4 MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTION......Page 44
1.5.5 DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT......Page 45
1.5.7 INELASTIC COLLISIONS......Page 47
1.5.8 COLLISION FREQUENCY......Page 49
1.5.9 RATE COEFFICIENTS AND CONSTANTS......Page 54
1.5.10 ION MOBILITY......Page 58
1.6 POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS FOR PARTICLE INTERACTIONS......Page 63
1.7 QUANTUM MECHANICAL APPROACH TO SCATTERING......Page 67
2.1 TOTAL COLLISION CROSS SECTIONS......Page 79
2.1.1 RAMSAUER TECHNIQUE......Page 80
2.1.2 MODIFIED RAMSAUER’S TECHNIQUE......Page 82
2.1.3 LINEAR TRANSMISSION METHOD......Page 84
2.1.4 TIME-OF-FLIGHT METHOD......Page 85
2.1.5 PHOTOELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY......Page 89
2.2 DIFFERENTIAL CROSS SECTIONS......Page 90
2.2.2 CROSSED BEAMS TECHNIQUE......Page 91
2.3.1 IONIZATION TUBE METHOD......Page 94
2.3.3 CROSSED BEAMS METHODS......Page 96
2.3.4 PULSED CROSSED BEAM TECHNIQUE......Page 99
2.4 TOTAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTION......Page 100
2.4.1 RESONANCE NEAR EXCITATION ONSET......Page 103
2.4.3 SWARM METHOD FOR RO-VIBRATIONAL EXCITATION......Page 105
2.5 ATTACHMENT CROSS SECTION......Page 108
2.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 112
3.1 ARGON......Page 117
3.1.1 TOTAL AND MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN Ar…......Page 120
3.1.2 TOTAL CROSS SECTIONS IN Ar…......Page 123
3.1.3 ELASTIC AND DIFFERENTIAL CROSS SECTIONS IN Ar......Page 124
3.1.4 TOTAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN Ar......Page 127
3.1.5 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN Ar......Page 132
3.1.6 VERIFICATION OF THE SIGMA RULE FOR Ar......Page 138
3.2 HELIUM......Page 140
3.2.1 TOTAL AND MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN He......Page 141
3.2.2 ELASTIC AND DIFFERENTIAL CROSS SECTIONS IN He......Page 144
3.2.3 TOTAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN He......Page 147
3.2.4 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN He......Page 151
3.2.5 VERIFICATION OF THE SIGMA RULE FOR He......Page 154
3.3 KRYPTON......Page 155
3.3.1 TOTAL CROSS SECTIONS IN Kr......Page 156
3.3.2 MODIFIED EFFECTIVE RANGE THEORY (MERT)......Page 157
3.3.3 MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN Kr......Page 164
3.3.4 ELASTIC AND DIFFERENTIAL CROSS SECTIONS IN Kr......Page 166
3.3.5 TOTAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN Kr......Page 169
3.3.6 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN Kr......Page 172
3.4 NEON......Page 175
3.4.1 TOTAL CROSS SECTIONS IN Ne......Page 176
3.4.2 MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN Ne......Page 179
3.4.3 ELASTIC AND DIFFERENTIAL CROSS SECTIONS IN Ne......Page 181
3.4.4 TOTAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN Ne......Page 185
3.4.5 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN Ne......Page 189
3.4.6 VERIFICATION OF THE SIGMA RULE FOR NE......Page 193
3.5 XENON......Page 194
3.5.1 TOTAL CROSS SECTIONS IN Xe......Page 195
3.5.2 MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN Xe......Page 196
3.5.4 TOTAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN XE......Page 200
3.5.5 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN Xe......Page 205
3.5.6 VERIFICATION OF THE SIGMA RULE FOR Xe......Page 207
3.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 209
4.1 CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)......Page 217
4.1.1 TOTAL CROSS SECTIONS IN CO......Page 219
4.1.2 MOMENTUM TRANSVFER CROSS SECTIONS IN CO......Page 222
4.1.4 ROTATIONAL AND VIBRATIONAL CROSS SECTIONS IN CO......Page 223
4.1.5 ELECTRONIC EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN CO......Page 227
4.1.6 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN CO......Page 232
4.2 MOLECULAR HYDROGEN (H2)......Page 235
4.2.1 TOTAL CROSS SECTIONS IN H2......Page 236
4.2.3 MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN H2......Page 240
4.2.4 RO-VIBRATIONAL CROSS SECTIONS IN H2......Page 242
4.2.5 ELECTRONIC EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN H2......Page 245
4.2.6 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN H2......Page 246
4.2.7 SIGMA RULE FOR H2......Page 248
4.3 MOLECULAR NITROGEN......Page 249
4.3.1 TOTAL CROSS SECTIONS IN N2......Page 250
4.3.2 MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN N2......Page 253
4.3.4 RO-VIBRATIONAL EXCITATION IN N2......Page 254
4.3.5 ELECTRONIC EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN N2......Page 256
4.3.6 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN N2......Page 260
4.3.7 SIGMA RULE FOR N2......Page 261
4.4.1 TOTAL SCATTERING CROSS SECTIONS IN O2......Page 262
4.4.2 MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN O2......Page 264
4.4.3 ELASTIC SCATTERING CROSS SECTIONS IN O2......Page 265
4.4.4 RO-VIBRATIONAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN O2......Page 267
4.4.5 ELECTRONIC EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN O2......Page 269
4.4.6 DISSOCIATION CROSS SECTIONS IN O2......Page 270
4.4.7 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN O2......Page 273
4.5 NITRIC OXIDE (NO)......Page 274
4.5.1 TOTAL SCATTERING CROSS SECTIONS (NO)......Page 275
4.5.3 ELECTRONIC EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN NO......Page 277
4.5.4 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN NO......Page 278
4.6 CLOSING REMARKS......Page 280
5.1.1 TOTAL SCATTERING CROSS SECTIONS IN CO2......Page 291
5.1.2 ELASTIC AND MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN CO2......Page 294
5.1.3 RO-VIBRATIONAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN CO2......Page 296
5.1.4 ELECTRONIC EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN CO2......Page 299
5.1.5 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN CO2......Page 302
5.2 HYDROCARBON GASES CxHy......Page 303
5.2.1 TOTAL SCATTERING CROSS SECTIONS IN CXHY......Page 304
5.2.1.2 Other Hydrocarbons......Page 305
5.2.2.2 Excitation Cross Sections......Page 306
5.3 MERCURY VAPOR......Page 307
5.4 NITROUS OXIDE (N2O)......Page 310
5.5 OZONE (O3)......Page 314
5.7 SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE (SF6)......Page 317
5.7.1 TOTAL SCATTERING CROSS SECTION IN SF6......Page 320
5.7.2 MOMENTUM TRANSFER CROSS SECTIONS IN SF6......Page 322
5.7.4 VIBRATIONAL EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN SF6......Page 324
5.7.5 ELECTRONIC EXCITATION CROSS SECTIONS IN SF6......Page 327
5.7.6 IONIZATION CROSS SECTIONS IN SF6......Page 328
5.8 WATER VAPOR (H2O)......Page 329
5.9.1 TETRAFLUOROMETHANE (CF4)......Page 332
5.9.2 PERFLUOROETHANE (C2F6)......Page 334
5.9.3 PERFLUOROPROPANE (C3F8)......Page 336
5.9.4 DICHLORODIFLUOROMETHANE (CCl2F2)......Page 337
5.10.9 URANIUM FLUORIDE (UF6)......Page 339
5.11 CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 340
6.1 DEFINITIONS......Page 353
6.2 DRIFT AND DIFFUSION MEASUREMENT......Page 354
6.3 ELECTRON ENERGY DISTRIBUTION......Page 358
6.4 APPROXIMATE METHODS......Page 361
6.5.1 AIR (DRY AND HUMID)......Page 363
6.5.2 ARGON......Page 365
6.5.3 CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)......Page 374
6.5.4 CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)......Page 378
6.5.5 HELIUM (HE)......Page 381
6.5.6 HYDROGEN (H2) AND DEUTERIUM (D2)......Page 386
6.5.7 KRYPTON (KR)......Page 395
6.5.8.1 Cesium (Cs)......Page 397
6.5.8.2 Mercury (Hg)......Page 400
6.5.8.3 Sodium (Na) and Thallium (Tl)......Page 404
6.5.9 NEON (NE)......Page 405
6.5.10 NITROGEN (N2)......Page 408
6.5.11 OXYGEN (O2)......Page 417
6.5.12 XENON (XE)......Page 421
7.1 CURRENT PULSE DUE TO AVALANCHE......Page 431
7.1.1 ELECTRON CURRENT (INTEGRATING MODE)......Page 434
7.1.2 ELECTRON CURRENT (DIFFERENTIAL MODE)......Page 435
7.2 ARRIVAL TIME SPECTRUM METHOD......Page 438
7.3 HYDROCARBON GASES......Page 440
7.3.1 METHANE (CH4)......Page 442
7.3.2 ETHANE (C2H6)......Page 445
7.4 NITROGEN COMPOUNDS......Page 447
7.4.1 AMMONIA......Page 448
7.5.1 TRIFLUOROMETHANE (CHF3)......Page 450
7.5.2 TETRAFLUOROMETHANE (CF4)......Page 454
7.5.5 PERFLUOROPROPANE (C3F8)......Page 456
7.5.6 SILANE (SIH4)......Page 457
7.6 SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE (SF6)......Page 458
7.7 WATER VAPOR (H2O AND D2O)......Page 462
7.8.1.1 Fluorine (F2)......Page 464
7.8.1.2 Chlorine (Cl2)......Page 466
7.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 467
8.2 CURRENT GROWTH IN UNIFORM FIELDS......Page 477
8.2.1.1 Ionization Chamber......Page 480
8.2.1.2 Vacuum System......Page 481
8.3 FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCE OF alpha/N ON E/N......Page 482
8.4 SPACE CHARGE EFFECTS......Page 485
8.5 BREAKDOWN IN UNIFORM FIELDS......Page 489
8.6 MULTIPLICATION IN NONUNIFORM FIELDS......Page 494
8.6.2 RADIAL ELECTRIC FIELD IN A COAXIAL CYLINDRICAL GEOMETRY......Page 496
8.7 RECOMBINATION......Page 498
8.8.1.1 Argon (Ar)......Page 499
8.8.1.2 Helium (He)......Page 501
8.8.1.5 Xenon (Xe)......Page 502
8.9.1.2 Other Hydrocarbons......Page 504
8.9.2.1 Hydrogen (H2)......Page 506
8.9.2.3 Nitrogen (N2)......Page 508
8.10.1 MERCURY VAPOR......Page 509
8.10.2 TETRAETHOXYSILANE......Page 511
9.1 ATTACHMENT PROCESSES......Page 519
9.2 CURRENT GROWTH IN ATTACHING GASES......Page 520
9.3.1 DRY AND HUMID AIR......Page 524
9.3.2.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)......Page 527
9.3.2.2 Carbon Monoxide (CO)......Page 528
9.3.3 FREON-12 (CCl2F2)......Page 530
9.3.4 HALOGENS......Page 531
9.3.4.1 Fluorine (F2)......Page 532
9.3.4.2 Chlorine (Cl2)......Page 533
9.3.4.3 Bromine (Br2)......Page 534
9.3.5 NITROGEN COMPOUNDS......Page 537
9.3.5.1 Ammonia (NH3)......Page 538
9.3.5.2 Nitric Oxide (NO)......Page 539
9.3.5.3 Nitrous Oxide (N2O)......Page 542
9.3.5.4 Nitrogen Dioxide and Sulfur Dioxide (NO2 and SO2)......Page 544
9.3.5.4.1 Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)......Page 546
9.3.5.4.2 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)......Page 547
9.3.6 OXYGEN (O2)......Page 548
9.3.7 SULFUR HEXAFLUORIDE (SF6)......Page 550
9.3.8 SELECTED INDUSTRIAL GASES......Page 558
9.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 560
10.1 TYPES OF VOLTAGE......Page 567
10.2 HIGH DIRECT VOLTAGE GENERATION......Page 568
10.3 HIGH ALTERNATING VOLTAGE GENERATION......Page 571
10.4 HIGH IMPULSE VOLTAGE GENERATION......Page 572
10.5 IONIZATION IN ALTERNATING FIELDS......Page 576
10.6 SPARKING VOLTAGES......Page 578
10.6.1.1 Direct Voltages......Page 579
10.6.1.2 Alternating Voltages......Page 581
10.6.1.3 Lightning Impulse Voltages......Page 582
10.6.1.4 Switching Impulse Voltages......Page 584
10.6.2.1 Breakdown Voltage......Page 587
10.6.2.2 Particle-Initiated Breakdown......Page 590
10.6.3 VOLT–TIME CHARACTERISTICS......Page 593
11.1 LIST OF SYMBOLS......Page 601
11.2 BRIEF HISTORICAL NOTE......Page 603
11.3 ELECTRON MOTION IN VACUUM IN E×B FIELDS......Page 604
11.4 EFFECTIVE REDUCED ELECTRIC FIELD (EREF)......Page 606
11.6 IONIZATION COEFFICIENTS......Page 609
11.7.1 AIR......Page 612
11.7.2 ARGON......Page 614
11.7.3 HYDROGEN......Page 615
11.7.4 NITROGEN......Page 616
11.7.5 OXYGEN......Page 619
11.8 SECONDARY IONIZATION COEFFICIENT......Page 620
1.9.1 UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELDS......Page 622
11.9.2 NONUNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELDS......Page 625
11.10 TIME LAGS IN E×B CROSSED FIELDS......Page 626
11.11 COMPUTATIONAL METHODS......Page 631
11.12 EFFECTIVE COLLISION FREQUENCY......Page 634
11.13 CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 636
12.1 BASIC PLASMA PHENOMENA......Page 639
12.2 DEBYE LENGTH......Page 642
12.3 BOHM SHEATH MODEL......Page 643
12.4 PLASMA FREQUENCY......Page 644
12.7 RF PLASMA......Page 646
12.7.1 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES......Page 648
12.8 POWER ABSORBED......Page 651
12.8.2 SHEATH–GLOW BOUNDARY......Page 652
12.8.3 SHEATH......Page 653
12.8.4 DISCUSSION......Page 654
12.9 MICROWAVE BREAKDOWN......Page 656
12.10 LASER BREAKDOWN......Page 660
12.11 CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 662
Appendix 1......Page 665
A2 A. ELECTRON QUANTUM NUMBERS......Page 667
A2 B. TERM NOTATION FOR ATOMS......Page 668
A2 C. ELECTRONIC STATES IN MOLECULES......Page 672
A2 D. ROTATIONAL AND VIBRATIONAL EXCITATION......Page 674
Appendix 3......Page 679
Appendix 4......Page 681
Appendix 5......Page 685
Appendix 6......Page 687
Appendix 7......Page 689