Front Matter......Page 2
Preface......Page 5
Preface to the Second Edition......Page 8
Preface to the First Edition......Page 10
Foreword to the First Edition......Page 12
Table of Contents......Page 14
Part I. Design: Theory and Practice......Page 17
1.1 Gas Turbine Cycle in the Combined Cycle or Cogeneration Mode......Page 18
1.2 Gas Turbine Performance......Page 24
1.3 Gas Turbine Design Consideration......Page 26
1.4 Categories of Gas Turbines......Page 30
1.4.1 Frame Type Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines......Page 31
1.4.2 Aircraft-Derivative Gas Turbines......Page 33
1.4.3 Industrial Type Gas Turbines......Page 35
1.4.4 Small Gas Turbines......Page 36
1.4.5 Micro-Turbines......Page 39
1.5.1 Compressors......Page 40
1.5.1.1 Axial-Flow Compressors......Page 42
1.5.1.2 Centrifugal Flow Compressors......Page 45
1.5.2 Regenerators......Page 46
1.5.3 Combustors......Page 48
1.5.4.1 Can-Annular and Annular......Page 50
1.5.4.3 External Combustor (Experimental)......Page 51
1.6 Fuel Type......Page 55
1.7 Environmental Effects......Page 57
1.8.1 Radial-Inflow Turbine......Page 58
1.8.2 Axial-Flow Turbines......Page 59
1.9 Materials......Page 62
1.11 Gas Turbine Heat Recovery......Page 64
1.12.1 Instrumentation and Controls......Page 68
1.13 Bibliography......Page 70
2.1 The Brayton Cycle......Page 72
2.1.1 Regeneration Effect......Page 76
2.1.2.1 Intercooling and Reheat Effects......Page 79
2.2.1 The Simple Cycle......Page 82
2.2.2 The Split-Shaft Simple Cycle......Page 84
2.2.3 The Regenerative Cycle......Page 85
2.2.4 The Intercooled Simple Cycle......Page 87
2.2.6 The Intercooled Regenerative Reheat Cycle......Page 89
2.2.7 The Steam Injection Cycle......Page 90
2.2.8 The Evaporative Regenerative Cycle......Page 94
2.3 The Brayton-Rankine Cycle......Page 97
2.4 Summation of Cycle Analysis......Page 99
2.5 A General Overview of Combined Cycle Plants......Page 101
2.6 Compressed Air Energy Storage Cycle......Page 106
2.7 Power Augmentaion......Page 108
2.9.1.1 Evaporative Cooling of the Turbine......Page 109
2.9.1.2 Refrigerated Inlets for the Gas Turbines......Page 111
2.9.2 Combination of Evaporative and Refrigerated Inlet Systems......Page 112
2.9.4.1 Mid-Compressor Flashing of Water......Page 114
2.9.4.2 Injection of Humidified and Heated Compressed Air......Page 115
2.9.4.3 Injection of Water or Steam at the Gas Turbine Compressor Exit......Page 116
2.9.4.4 Injection of Steam in the Combustor of the Gas Turbines Utilizing Present Dual Fuel Nozzles......Page 117
2.10 Summation of the Power Augmentation Systems......Page 118
2.11 Bibliography......Page 123
3.1 Turbomachine Aerothermodynamics......Page 125
3.1.1 Ideal Gas......Page 126
3.1.2 Compressibility Effect......Page 128
3.2 The Aerothermal Equations......Page 129
3.2.2 The Momentum Equation......Page 130
3.2.3 The Energy Equation......Page 133
3.3.1 Adiabatic Efficiency......Page 134
3.4 Dimensional Analysis......Page 137
3.5 Compressor Performance Characteristics......Page 140
3.6 Turbine Performance Characteristics......Page 144
3.7 Gas Turbine Performance Computation......Page 145
3.8 Bibliography......Page 153
4.1.1 Type of Application......Page 154
4.1.1.1 Aircraft Propulsion......Page 155
4.1.1.3 Power Generation......Page 156
4.1.3 Gas Turbine Size and Efficiency......Page 157
4.1.4 Type of Fuel......Page 158
4.1.7 Start-up Techniques......Page 160
4.2.1 ASME, Performance Test Code on Overall Plant Performance, ASME PTC 46 1996......Page 161
4.2.3 ASME, Performance Test Code on Gas Turbines, ASME PTC 22 1997......Page 162
4.3 Mechanical Parameters......Page 163
4.3.4 ASME Gas Turbine Control and Protection Systems B133.4 Published: 1978 (ReaffirmedYear: 1997)......Page 164
4.3.7 ASME Procurement Standard for Gas Turbine Electrical Equipment B133.5 Published: 1978 (ReaffirmedYear: 1997)......Page 165
4.3.9 API Std 618, Reciprocating Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services, 4th Edition, June 1995......Page 166
4.3.12 API Std 677, General-Purpose Gear Units for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services, 2nd Edition, July 1997 (Reaffirmed: March 2000)......Page 167
4.3.15 ANSI/API Std 670, Vibration, Axial-Position, and Bearing-Temperature Monitoring Systems, 3rd Edition, November 1993......Page 168
4.4 Application of the Mechanical Standards to the Gas Turbine......Page 169
4.4.1 Gears......Page 176
4.4.2 Lubrication Systems......Page 178
4.4.3 Vibration Measurements......Page 181
4.5 Specifications......Page 182
4.6 Bibliography......Page 188
4.6.1 Mechanical Specifications......Page 189
5.1 Mathematical Analysis......Page 191
5.1.1 Undamped Free System......Page 194
5.1.2 Damped System......Page 195
5.1.2.2 Critically Damped System......Page 197
5.1.2.3 Underdamped System......Page 198
5.1.3 Forced Vibrations......Page 199
5.1.4.2 Unbalances......Page 202
5.2.1 Rigid Supports......Page 205
5.2.2 Flexible Supports......Page 206
5.3 Critical Speed Calculations for Rotor Bearing Systems......Page 209
5.4 Electromechanical Systems and Analogies......Page 211
5.4.1.3 Forces Applied to a Rotor......Page 214
5.4.2.1 Forced (Resonant) Vibration......Page 216
5.4.3 Self-Excited Instabilities......Page 217
5.4.3.1 Hysteretic Whirl......Page 220
5.4.3.3 Oil Whirl......Page 221
5.4.3.4 Aerodynamic Whirl......Page 222
5.4.3.5 Whirl from Fluid Trapped in the Rotor......Page 224
5.5 Campbell Diagram......Page 225
5.6 Bibliography......Page 230
Part II. Major Components......Page 231
6. Centrifugal Compressors......Page 232
6.1 Centrifugal Compressor Components......Page 234
6.1.1 Inlet Guide Vanes......Page 240
6.1.2 Impeller......Page 242
6.1.3 Inducer......Page 247
6.1.4 Centrifugal Section of an Impeller......Page 248
6.1.5.2 Boundary-Layer Development......Page 250
6.1.5.5 Vane Thickness......Page 251
6.1.7 Stanitz Slip Factor......Page 254
6.1.8 Diffusers......Page 255
6.1.9 Scroll or Volute......Page 257
6.2 Centrifugal Compressor Performance......Page 259
6.2.1.1 Shock in Rotor Losses......Page 261
6.2.1.3 Disc Friction Loss......Page 262
6.2.1.5 Clearance Loss......Page 263
6.2.1.6 Skin Friction Loss......Page 264
6.2.2.5 Exit Loss......Page 265
6.3 Compressor Surge......Page 266
6.3.1 Effects of Gas Composition......Page 272
6.3.3 Surge Detection and Control......Page 274
6.4 Process Centrifugal Compressors......Page 276
6.4.1 Compressor Configuration......Page 279
6.4.2 Impeller Fabrication......Page 282
6.5 Bibliography......Page 283
7.1 Introduction......Page 287
7.2 Blade and Cascade Nomenclature......Page 292
7.3 Elementary Airfoil Theory......Page 294
7.4 Laminar-Flow Airfoils......Page 296
7.5 Energy Increase......Page 297
7.6 Velocity Triangles......Page 299
7.7 Degree of Reaction......Page 303
7.8 Radial Equilibrium......Page 306
7.10 The Incidence Rule......Page 308
7.11 The Deviation Rule......Page 311
7.12.1 Compressor Surge......Page 316
7.13 Compressor Choke......Page 319
7.13.2 Individual Blade Stall......Page 320
7.14 Rotating Stall......Page 321
7.15 Stall Flutter......Page 323
7.16 Compressor Performance Parameters......Page 327
7.17 Performance Losses in an Axial-Flow Compressor......Page 330
7.18 New Developments in Axial-Flow Compressors......Page 332
7.19 Axial-Flow Compressor Research......Page 334
7.20 Cascade Tests......Page 335
7.20.1 Blade Profile......Page 337
7.21 Compressor Blade Material......Page 344
7.23 Bibliography......Page 347
8. Radial-Inflow Turbines......Page 349
8.1 Description......Page 350
8.2 Theory......Page 353
8.3 Turbine Design Considerations......Page 357
8.4 Losses in a Radial-Inflow Turbine......Page 361
8.5 Performance of a Radial-Inflow Turbine......Page 362
8.6 Bibliography......Page 366
9.1 Turbine Geometry......Page 367
9.1.1 Degree of Reaction......Page 370
9.1.3 Work Factor......Page 371
9.1.4 Velocity Diagrams......Page 372
9.1.4.2 Impulse Diagram......Page 373
9.2 Impulse Turbine......Page 374
9.3 The Reaction Turbine......Page 378
9.4 Turbine Blade Cooling Concepts......Page 381
9.4.4 Transpiration Cooling......Page 383
9.5.2 Film and Convection Cooling Design......Page 384
9.5.3 Transpiration Cooling Design......Page 388
9.5.5 Water-Cooled Turbine Blades......Page 389
9.5.6 Steam-Cooled Turbine Blades......Page 391
9.6 Cooled-Turbine Aerodynamics......Page 392
9.7 Turbine Losses......Page 393
9.8 Bibliography......Page 397
10. Combustors......Page 400
10.1 Combustion Terms......Page 402
10.2 Combustion......Page 403
10.3 Combustion Chamber Design......Page 405
10.3.1 Flame Stabilization......Page 409
10.3.3 Film Cooling of the Liner......Page 410
10.4 Fuel Atomization and Ignition......Page 411
10.4.1.1 Cross-Sectional Area......Page 412
10.4.1.3 Wobbe Number......Page 413
10.4.1.7 Combustion Liners......Page 414
10.4.1.9 Reliability of Combustors......Page 415
10.5 Typical Combustor Arrangements......Page 416
10.6.1 Smoke......Page 420
10.6.2 Unburnt Hydrocarbons and Carbon Monoxide......Page 421
10.6.3 Oxides of Nitrogen......Page 422
10.6.3.1 Basis for NO_x Prevention......Page 425
10.6.3.2 Dry Low NO_x Combustor......Page 426
10.7.1.1 Surface Temperatures......Page 433
10.7.2 Catalytic Combustor Design......Page 436
10.8 Bibliography......Page 437
Part III. Materials, Fuel Technology, and Fuel Systems......Page 439
11. Materials......Page 440
11.1.1 Creep and Rupture......Page 442
11.1.2 Ductility and Fracture......Page 444
11.1.3 Cyclic Fatigue......Page 445
11.1.4 Thermal Fatigue......Page 446
11.1.5 Corrosion......Page 447
11.2 Gas Turbine Materials......Page 451
11.2.1.4 12 Cr Alloys......Page 454
11.4 Forgings and Nondestructive Testing......Page 456
11.4.1 Ceramics......Page 457
11.5 Coatings......Page 458
11.5.2 Future Coatings......Page 463
11.6 Bibliography......Page 464
12. Fuels......Page 465
12.1 Fuel Specifications......Page 469
12.2.1 Liquid Fuels......Page 472
12.3 Liquid Fuel Handling and Treatment......Page 474
12.4 Heavy Fuels......Page 483
12.5 Fuel Gas Handling and Treatment......Page 488
12.6 Equipment for Removal of Particulates and Liquids from Fuel Gas Systems......Page 493
12.7 Fuel Heating......Page 496
12.8 Cleaning of Turbine Components......Page 497
12.8.2 Compressor Washing......Page 498
12.9 Fuel Economics......Page 500
12.10 Operating Experience......Page 502
12.11 Heat Tracing of Piping Systems......Page 503
12.12.1 Stream Tracing Systems......Page 504
12.13.1 Atmospheric Tanks......Page 506
12.13.4 Fixed Roof Tanks......Page 507
12.14 Bibliography......Page 508
Part IV. Auxiliary Components and Accessories......Page 510
13.1.1 Rolling Bearings......Page 511
13.1.1.1 Load Ratings......Page 516
13.1.1.2 Wear......Page 517
13.1.2 Journal Bearings......Page 518
13.2 Bearing Design Principles......Page 521
13.3 Tilting-Pad Journal Bearings......Page 525
13.4 Bearing Materials......Page 528
13.5 Bearing and Shaft Instabilities......Page 529
13.6 Thrust Bearings......Page 530
13.8 Thrust-Bearing Power Loss......Page 534
13.10 Noncontacting Seals......Page 535
13.10.1 Labyrinth Seals......Page 536
13.10.2.1 Fixed Seal Rings......Page 541
13.10.2.2 Floating Seal Rings......Page 542
13.11 Mechanical (Face) Seals......Page 543
13.12 Mechanical Seal Selection and Application......Page 548
13.12.1.3 Lubricity......Page 549
13.12.2 Additional Product Considerations......Page 550
13.12.5 Equipment......Page 551
13.12.9 Main Seal Body......Page 552
13.13 Seal Systems......Page 553
13.14 Associated Oil System......Page 554
13.15 Dry Gas Seals......Page 555
13.15.1 Operating Range of Dry Gas Seals......Page 558
13.15.4 Dry Gas Seal Degradation......Page 559
13.15.4.3 Contamination from Seal Gas Supply......Page 560
13.16 Bibliography......Page 561
14. Gears......Page 563
14.1 Gear Types......Page 564
14.2.1 Pressure Angle......Page 566
14.2.2 Helix Angle......Page 568
14.2.5 Gear Accuracy......Page 570
14.2.6 Types of Bearings......Page 571
14.2.7 Service Factor......Page 572
14.2.9 Lubrication......Page 573
14.3.2 Hobbing and Shaving......Page 574
14.3.5 Gear Rating......Page 575
14.3.6 Gear Noise......Page 576
14.4 Installation and Initial Operation......Page 577
14.5 Bibliography......Page 579
Part V. Installation, Operation, and Maintenance......Page 580
15.1 Basic Oil System......Page 581
15.1.1 Lubrication Oil System......Page 582
15.1.2 Seal Oil System......Page 587
15.3 Oil Sampling and Testing......Page 589
15.4 Oil Contamination......Page 590
15.5 Filter Selection......Page 591
15.6 Cleaning and Flushing......Page 593
15.7 Coupling Lubrication......Page 594
15.8 Lubrication Management Program......Page 595
15.9 Bibliography......Page 596
16. Spectrum Analysis......Page 597
16.1 Vibration Measurement......Page 603
16.1.1 Displacement Transducers......Page 604
16.1.3 Acceleration Transducers......Page 605
16.1.4 Dynamic Pressure Transducers......Page 606
16.2 Taping Data......Page 607
16.3 Interpretation of Vibration Spectra......Page 608
16.4 Subsynchronous Vibration Analysis Using RTA......Page 612
16.5 Synchronous and Harmonic Spectra......Page 616
16.6 Bibliography......Page 622
17.1 Rotor Imbalance......Page 623
17.2 Balancing Procedures......Page 629
17.2.1 Orbital Balancing......Page 630
17.2.2 Modal Balancing......Page 631
17.2.3 Multiplane Balancing (Influence Coefficient Method)......Page 633
17.3 Application of Balancing Techniques......Page 635
17.4 User's Guide for Multiplane Balancing......Page 639
17.5 Bibliography......Page 641
18. Couplings and Alignment......Page 643
18.1 Gear Couplings......Page 645
18.1.3 Continuously Lubricated Couplings......Page 650
18.1.4 Gear Coupling Failure Modes......Page 651
18.2 Metal Diaphragm Couplings......Page 653
18.3 Metal Disc Couplings......Page 656
18.4 Turbomachinery Uprates......Page 658
18.5.1 The Shaft Alignment Procedure......Page 662
18.5.1.1 The Prealignment Survey......Page 663
18.5.1.2 Cold Alignment......Page 664
18.5.1.3 Hot Alignment Check......Page 668
18.6 Bibliography......Page 670
19. Control Systems and Instrumentation......Page 672
19.1 Control Systems......Page 673
19.1.1.1 Starting Preparations......Page 680
19.1.1.2 Start-up Description......Page 681
19.1.1.4 Generator Protection......Page 682
19.2 Condition Monitoring Systems......Page 683
19.2.1 Requirements for an Effective Diagnostic System......Page 685
19.3 Monitoring Software......Page 687
19.4 Implementation of a Condition Monitoring System......Page 689
19.4.1 Plant Power Optimization......Page 690
19.4.2 On-Line Optimization Process......Page 691
19.5 Life Cycle Costs......Page 694
19.5.3 Instrumentation Requirements......Page 696
19.5.5 Desirable Instrumentation (Optional)......Page 697
19.5.7 Pressure Drop in Filter System......Page 698
19.5.8 Temperature and Pressure Measurement for Compressors and Turbines......Page 701
19.6.1 Thermocouples......Page 702
19.6.3 Pyrometers......Page 703
19.7 Pressure Measurement......Page 704
19.8.1 Vibration Instrumentation Selection......Page 705
19.8.2 Selection of Systems for Analyses of Vibration Data......Page 707
19.9.1 Fuel System......Page 708
19.9.3.1 Mechanical Baseline......Page 709
19.9.3.2 Aerothermal Baseline......Page 710
19.9.4 Data Trending......Page 711
19.10 The Gas Turbine......Page 714
19.10.2 Compressor Aerothermal Characteristics and Compressor Surge......Page 717
19.11.1 Compressor Analysis......Page 718
19.11.2 Combustor Analysis......Page 719
19.11.3 Turbine Analysis......Page 721
19.11.4 Turbine Efficiency......Page 722
19.12 Mechanical Problem Diagnostics......Page 723
19.12.1 Data Retrieval......Page 725
19.13 Summary......Page 726
19.14 Bibliography......Page 727
20.1 Introduction......Page 729
20.2 Performance Codes......Page 730
20.3 Flow Straighteners......Page 731
20.3.1 Pressure Measurement......Page 732
20.3.2 Temperature Measurement......Page 735
20.3.3 Flow Measurement......Page 736
20.4 Gas Turbine Test......Page 738
20.5 Gas Turbine......Page 739
20.5.1 Air Inlet Filter Module......Page 740
20.5.2 Compressor Module......Page 741
20.5.3 Combustor Module......Page 742
20.5.5 Life Cycle Consideration of Various Critical Hot Section Components......Page 743
20.7 Performance Computations......Page 744
20.7.1 General Governing Equations......Page 745
20.7.2 Gas Turbine Performance Calculation......Page 748
20.8 Gas Turbine Performance Calculations......Page 755
20.9 Correction Factors for Gas Turbines......Page 757
20.10.1 Rotor Dynamics......Page 759
20.11.1 Emissions......Page 761
20.12 Plant Losses......Page 765
20.13 Bibliography......Page 767
21.1 Philosophy of Maintenance......Page 769
21.1.1 Maximization of Equipment Efficiency and Effectiveness......Page 772
21.1.2 Organization Structures for a Performance-Based Total Productive Maintenance Program......Page 774
21.1.3 Implementation of a Performance-Based Total Productive Maintenance......Page 775
21.2 Training of Personnel......Page 777
21.2.3.2 Foreperson and Lead Machinist......Page 778
21.2.4.1 Update Training......Page 779
21.2.4.2 Practical Training......Page 780
21.3 Tools and Shop Equipment......Page 781
21.3.1 Spare Parts Inventory......Page 782
21.3.3 Availability and Reliability......Page 783
21.3.4 Redesign for Higher Machinery Reliability......Page 786
21.4 Gas Turbine Start-up......Page 788
21.5.1 Advanced Gas Turbines......Page 790
21.5.2 Axial-Flow Compressor......Page 792
21.5.3 Dry Low NO_x Combustors......Page 794
21.5.4 Axial-Flow Turbine......Page 797
21.5.5 Maintenance Scheduling......Page 798
21.5.6.1 Operation and Service Manuals......Page 800
21.5.6.5 Written Memos......Page 801
21.5.7 Inspection......Page 802
21.6 Long-Term Service Agreements......Page 805
21.7 Borescope Inspection......Page 807
21.7.1 Maintenance of Gas Turbine Components......Page 814
21.7.2 Compressors......Page 816
21.7.4 Compressor Water Wash......Page 823
21.7.6 On-Line Wash Cleaning System......Page 826
21.7.7 Off-Line Crank Wash Cleaning System......Page 827
21.7.8 On-Line and Off-Line Water Wash Fluids......Page 830
21.7.10 Combustors......Page 831
21.7.11 Turbines......Page 835
21.8 Rejuvenation of Used Turbine Blades......Page 841
21.9 Rotor Dynamic System Characteristics......Page 843
21.10 Bearing Maintenance......Page 845
21.10.1 Clearance Checks......Page 852
21.10.2.1 Failure Initiation......Page 853
21.10.2.2 Failure Protection......Page 854
21.11 Coupling Maintenance......Page 856
21.12 Repair and Rehabilitation of Turbomachinery Foundations......Page 857
21.12.1 Installation Defects......Page 858
21.12.2 Increasing Mass and Rigidity......Page 859
21.13 Bibliography......Page 860
22. Case Histories......Page 861
22.1 Axial-Flow Compressors......Page 862
22.2 Combustion Systems......Page 874
22.2.1 Transition Piece......Page 880
22.3 Axial-Flow Turbines......Page 882
Density......Page 906
Pressure......Page 907
Universal Gas Constant......Page 908
Miscellaneous Constants......Page 909
A......Page 910
B......Page 920
C......Page 925
D......Page 941
E......Page 944
F......Page 948
G......Page 955
H......Page 960
I......Page 963
J......Page 966
L......Page 967
M......Page 971
N......Page 978
O......Page 980
P......Page 983
R......Page 989
S......Page 993
T......Page 1002
U......Page 1007
V......Page 1008
W......Page 1010
Z......Page 1012
Short Bio-Data......Page 1013