Preface
Acknowledgments
InTASC Standards Chapter Guide
About the Authors
Chapter 1 Teachers Shape the Future
1.1 Teaching as an Inspiring, Satisfying, and Important Profession
1.2 Personal Qualities of Effective Teachers
1.3 The Moral Purpose of Education
1.3a Preparing Students for Responsible Citizenship
1.3b Providing Essential Knowledge and Skills
1.3c Enacting Schools’ Moral Purpose Through Caring Relationships
1.3d Practicing Good Stewardship
1.4 Technology and Education in a Global Environment
1.4a Technology, the Workplace, and Globalization
1.4b Competing in a Global Environment
1.4c Teaching With Technology
1.5 What 21st Century Students Need to Learn
1.6 InTASC Model Core Performance Standards for Teachers
1.6a Learners and Learning
Standard #1: Learner Development
Standard #2: Learning Differences
Standard #3: Learning Environments
1.6b Content
Standard #4: Content Knowledge
Standard #5: Application of Content
1.6c Instructional Practice
Standard #6: Assessment
Standard #7: Planning for Instruction
Standard #8: Instructional Strategies
1.6d Professional Responsibility
Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice
Standard #10: Leadership and Collaboration
Key Take-Aways
Teacher Scenario: It’s Your Turn
Notes
Chapter 2 Teaching as a Profession
2.1 Factors That Make Teaching a Profession
2.1a Defining a Profession
A Defined Body of Knowledge and Skills
Controlling Requirements for Entrance and Licensing
Autonomy in Deciding Work Responsibilities
Prestige and Economic Standing
Teacher Salaries
2.2 How the Teacher Profession Has Evolved
2.2a Changes Over the Decades
Lack of Career Stages
2.2b Changing Career Expectations
2.2c Teacher Career Advancement Initiatives
Paying for Masters’ Degrees and Experience
Alternative Pay Structures to Advance Teaching as a Career
Millennials and Teaching
2.3 Research on Teacher Preparation and Teacher–Student Outcomes
2.3a Teacher and Teaching Quality, Teacher Preparation, and Student Achievement
2.3b Research on Alternative Versus Traditional Teacher Preparation Routes
2.3c Preparedness and Teacher Longevity
2.4 State Licensure
2.4a Why States License Teachers
2.4b State Variations in Licensing Teachers
2.4c How New Teachers Become Licensed
2.4d Research on Teacher Certification and Student Achievement
2.5 Organizations That Support Teaching Professionals
2.5a Teacher Unions
The National Education Association and the American Federation of Teachers
Teacher Unions and Education Reform
Teacher Unions and Student Achievement
Teacher Union Critics
2.5b Should Teachers Strike?
Causes of Teacher Strikes
What Strikes Can Accomplish
The Dilemma for Teachers
2.5c National Teacher Preparation Accreditation Organizations
2.5d Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC)
2.5e National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS)
The Certification Process
Research on NBPTS Teachers and Student Achievement
Other Gains From NBPTS Certification
2.6 Professional Culture and Teacher Retention
2.6a Induction and Mentoring
Induction
Mentoring
Research on Induction and Mentoring
Key Take-Aways
Teacher Scenario: It’s Your Turn
Notes
Chapter 3 Philosophy of Education
3.1 What Is an Educational Philosophy?
3.1a What Is Philosophy?
3.1b What Is an Educational Philosophy?
3.1c Influences on Educational Philosophies
3.1d The Values Behind Education
3.1e Educational Foundations and Future Teachers
3.2 Key Ideas of Traditional Philosophy of Education
3.2a The Essentialist Philosophy of Education
3.2b The Essentialist Curriculum
3.2c Essentialist Instruction
3.2d The Essentialist Teacher’s Role
3.2e A Contemporary Essentialist Educator: E. D. Hirsch Jr.
Criticism of Hirsch’s Ideas
3.3 The Progressive Philosophy of Education
3.3a Key Ideas of Progressivism
3.3b The Progressive Curriculum
3.3c Progressive Instruction
3.3d The Progressive Teacher’s Role
3.3e Progressive Education Critics
3.3f Enduring Progressive Contributions
3.3g A Notable Progressive Educator: John Dewey
John Dewey’s View of Education
Defining a Balance
The Importance of Teaching and Learning
Beyond the Paradigm War
3.3h Reconciling Traditional and Progressive Viewpoints
3.4 Existential Philosophy of Education
3.4a Key Ideas of Existential Philosophy of Education
3.4b Existential Versus Traditional Views on Education
3.4c The Existentialist Curriculum
3.4d The Existentialist Teacher’s Role
3.4e Existential Instruction
3.4f A Notable Existentialist Educator: Maxine Greene
3.4g Criticism of Existential Philosophy in Schools
3.5 The Critical Theory Philosophy of Education
3.5a Key Ideas of Critical Theory
3.5b Critical Theory Curriculum
3.5c Critical Theory Instruction
3.5d The Critical Theory Teacher’s Role
3.5e A Notable Critical Theory Educator: Henry Giroux
3.5f Criticism of Critical Theory in Schools
3.6 Reflections on the Four Educational Philosophies
Key Take-Aways
Teacher Scenario: It’s Your Turn
Notes
Chapter 4 The History of American Public Education
4.1 Cultural Influences on Education in Early Colonial America
4.1a Settling North America
4.1b Renaissance Influences on Early Colonists’ Intellectual Traditions
4.1c Schooling in the Early Colonies: Three Key Factors
4.2 Early Education in New England Colonies
4.2a Puritans Shape Early New England Education
The Family as an Educational Agency
New England Laws Regarding Town Schools
Early School Finance Laws
4.2b Four Types of Schools
4.2c English (Elementary) Town Schools
Town School Teachers
School Buildings
Teaching Resources
Instructional Methods
Classroom Management
4.2d Dame (Primary) Schools
4.2e Latin Grammar Schools
Latin Grammar School Teachers
Curriculum
4.2f The Academy
Governance
Curriculum and Instruction
Women’s Education
Facilities
4.3 Early Education in the Middle and Southern Colonies
4.3a Early Education in the Middle Colonies
4.3b Early Education in Virginia and Southern Colonies
4.3c Early Education in Other States
4.3d Early Education of African Americans and Native Americans
Educating Enslaved African Americans
4.3e Educating Native Americans
4.4 Public Schooling During the Early National Period
4.4a The Secular Mandate
Separating Church and State
4.4b Social, Political, and Economic Changes
Growth of City Populations and Manufacturing
Extending Voting Rights
Poor and Working-Class Demand for Schools
Developing a National Educational Consciousness
Private Schools in the New Nation
4.4c Schools in the Early National Era
Infant (Primary) Schools
Public High Schools
Supplementary Schools
4.4d Teaching and Learning in the Early National Era
The Learning Environment
Normal Schools
Catherine Beecher Advanced Teaching as a Career for Women
4.4e Varied Opportunities for Varied Students
4.4f Increasing Access to Colleges
The New Land-Grant Colleges
4.5 Movement Toward Universal Public Schooling
4.5a Creating School Systems
4.5b Horace Mann
Mann’s Vision and Leadership
Arousing Critics
4.5c Henry Barnard
4.6 The Status of Public Schooling in the Late 19th Century
Key Take-Aways
Teacher Scenario: It’s Your Turn
Notes
Chapter 5 Education Reform—1900 to Today
5.1 Challenges to Traditional Concepts of Schooling
5.1a The Subject-Centered Education Approach
5.1b The Child-Centered Education Approach
5.1c G. Stanley Hall
5.1d John Dewey
5.2 National Reports and Scientific Management Theory Influence Public Schools’ Organization and Curriculum
5.2a Liberal Arts and the High School Curriculum
Committee of Ten
Committee of Fifteen
The Cardinal Principles Report of 1918
Criticism of the Comprehensive High School
5.2b Frederick Taylor and Scientific Management of Schools
How Scientific Management Worked in Schools
Criticism of Scientific Management in Schools
5.2c The Myth of the Common School
5.3 Washington, DuBois, Lawsuits, and Legislation Advance African American Education
5.3a Seeking Educational Gains
5.3b Booker T. Washington
5.3c W. E. B. DuBois
5.3d Gaining Access to Universal Education
5.3e Brown v. Board of Education, 1954
Education After Brown
The Brown Legacy
5.4 World War I, the Great Depression, Vocational Education, and Public Education
5.4a World War I and Standardized Tests
5.4b The Great Depression and Education
5.4c Increasing High School Enrollments
5.4d The Growth of Vocational Education
5.5 The Coleman Report: Family, School, and Educating the Disadvantaged
5.5a Coleman Report Findings
5.5b The Coleman Report: A Second Look
5.6 Special Education: Providing Free and Appropriate Education to Students With Disabilities
5.6a Advances in Special Education in the Mid-20th Century
5.6b Public Law 94-142: IDEA
PL 94-142 and Beyond
5.7 Federal Influence Over Education, Accountability Increases
5.7a A Nation at Risk Impacts Public Schools
5.7b Federal Support and Increased Accountability for Educating All Students
1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act
Head Start and Title I
No Child Left Behind Act
Critique of NCLB
Every Student Succeeds Act
Critique of ESSA
The Common Core Standards
Teacher Evaluation and Student Achievement
5.8 Recent Trends: Education Privatization, Virtual Education, New Curricula
5.8a Education Privatization
Charter Schools
Voucher Programs
Virtual Schools
5.8b New Curricula
Social–Emotional Learning
Personalized Learning
5.8c Successfully Educating Every Student: Where We Stand Today
Key Take-Aways
Teacher Scenario: It’s Your Turn
Notes
Chapter 6 Competing Goals of Public Education
6.1 The General Goals of Public Education
6.1a Defining a Set of Common Values
6.1b Defining Schools’ Goals
6.2 The Wide-Ranging Nature of American Education Goals
6.2a National Goals in a Decentralized Education System
6.2b Goals for U.S. Education
Benchmarks for U.S. Academic Performance
Comprehensive Education Goals
6.2c Personal Goals of Education
6.2d Social Goals of Education
6.2e Economic Goals of Education
6.3 Conservative, Liberal, and Critical Theory Education Critics: Differing Views and Goals About Schools’ Role in Society
6.3a The Conservative Perspective
6.3b The Liberal Perspective
6.3c The Critical Theory Perspective
6.3d Learning From the Critics
6.4 Realizing Education’s Goals: Investment in Human Capital
6.4a Investing in Human Capital
6.5 Is Education Still the Key to the American Dream?
6.5a Slowing Social and Economic Mobility
6.5b Optimism About Achieving the American Dream
Key Take-Aways
Teacher Scenario: It’s Your Turn
Notes
Chapter 7 Cultural, Social, and Educational Causes of the Achievement Gap and How to Fix Them
7.1 From Melting Pot to Cultural Pluralism
7.1a Increasing U.S. Diversity and Our Future Quality of Life
7.1b A Complex Reality
7.2 Public Schools as Socializing Agents
7.3 Social Class and Children’s Skills, Outlooks, and Opportunities
7.3a The Relationship Between Social Class and Educational Outcomes
7.3b Family Resources and School Success
7.3c Equal Opportunity in Schools
Unequal Starting Lines
7.4 Contradictory Roles of American Schools
7.4a Sorting and Selecting
7.4b School Quality and Social Mobility
7.5 Poverty and Education
7.5a Poverty, Cognitive Development, and School Success
Low Birth Weight
Fewer Early Childhood Learning Experiences
Early Language Differences
7.5b Poverty and Chronic Health Concerns
7.5c Poverty and Housing Instability
7.6 Segregation, Education, and the Achievement/Opportunity Gap
7.6a Residential Segregation by Race, Class, and Income
7.6b Segregated Schools and Student Outcomes
7.6c Integrated Schools and Student Outcomes
7.7 School Practices That Contribute to the Achievement/Opportunity Gap
7.7a Teacher Expectations
Hawthorne Studies
“Pygmalion in the Classroom”
Coleman Study
Oakes Study on Teachers’ Expectations for Students’ Futures
Growth Mindset
7.7b Preparation to Teach Diverse Students
7.7c Tracking and Restricted Curricula
Curriculum Tracking
Tracking Versus Ability Grouping
Opportunities, Effort, and Ability
7.7d Lower Teacher Quality
7.7e Grade Retention
7.7f Disciplinary Practices
7.7g School and Instructional/Classroom Climate
7.8 School Factors That May Reduce the Achievement/Opportunity Gap
7.8a Early Childhood Education and Student Achievement
7.8b Multicultural Education
7.8c Factors Beyond the School
7.8d Building Awareness of Unfair School Practices
7.8e Reconciling Cognitive Dissonance
7.8f Closing the Achievement/Opportunity Gap
Key Take-Aways
Teacher Scenario: It’s Your Turn
Notes
Chapter 8 Diversity and Cultural Assets in Education
8.1 Today’s Diverse Learners
8.1a Meet Our Students
8.1b Student Diversity and Teacher Demographics
8.2 Developing Cultural and Racial Identities
8.2a Culture and Learning
8.2b Race as a Social, Not Scientific Construct
8.2c A Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model
Racial, Ethnic, and Cultural Identities
Conformity Phase
Dissonance Phase
Resistance and Immersion Phase
Introspection Phase
Integrative Awareness Phase
8.2d White Identity Model
Naiveté Phase
Conformity Phase
Dissonance Phase
Resistance and Immersion Phase
Introspective Phase
Integrative Awareness Phase
Commitment to Antiracist Action Phase
8.2e White Privilege and White Fragility Theories
White Privilege Theory
White Fragility Theory
8.2f Limitations of the Racial/Cultural Identity Models
8.2g Intersectionality and Identity
8.2h Research on Racial and Cultural Identities in School
8.3 Underrepresented Students’ Perceptions and Academic Performance
8.3a Oppositional Culture Theory
To Achieve Is to “Be White”
8.3b Stereotype Threat Theory
8.3c Microaggression Theory
8.4 Using Student Assets to Increase Learning
8.4a Student Assets: Interpersonal Relationships and Compatible Learning Goals
Research on Teacher–Student Relationship Quality
Research on Compatible Learning Goals
8.4b Student Assets: Cultural and Family Resources
8.5 Fostering Student Resilience and Achievement
8.5a Deficit Thinking
8.5b Fostering Students’ Resilience
Drawing Upon Students’ Resources
8.5c Making Connections
8.5d Resetting Our Perspectives, Priorities, and Expectations
Key Take-Aways
Teacher Scenario: It’s Your Turn
Notes
Chapter 9 Teachers, Ethics, and the Law
9.1 Why Have Standards for Professional Ethics?
9.1a What Is a Code of Ethics?
9.1b Teachers’ Code of Ethics
9.1c Teachers, Ethics, and Social Networking Websites
Social Networking and Privacy
Risks of Communicating Outside the “Controlled Environment”
Ethical Behavior: A Higher Standard
9.2 Teachers and Case Law, Licensure, and Contracts
9.2a A Legal Context
9.2b Teaching License or Certificate
Can my teaching license be revoked once it is issued to me?
9.2c A Teaching Contract
9.3 Teachers’ Constitutional Rights in Schools
9.3a Freedom of Speech
Do teachers have academic freedom in the classroom?
How can “speaking out on a matter of public concern” affect my job?
9.3b Teacher Privacy
Can my classroom, desk, closet, and file cabinets be searched?
Can I be forced to take a drug test?
Can school authorities test teachers for illegal drug use without having a reasonable suspicion of drug use?
9.3c Teachers’ Freedom of Religion
May I be required to teach something that goes against my religious beliefs?
What should teachers know about the courts’ position on intelligent design?
Are teachers legally responsible for teaching intelligent design alongside evolution?
As a teacher, am I permitted to celebrate my religious holidays?
What could happen if I share my religious beliefs in class with my students?
What are my rights and obligations as a teacher regarding Bible reading, prayers, and moments of silence in my classroom?
9.3d Other Legal Issues Affecting Teachers
Is there such a thing as “educational malpractice,” and can I be sued if students do not learn in my class?
Can I be sued if my actions as a teacher cause harm to a student?
Is it considered “negligence” on my part if something happens in my classroom and someone gets hurt?
9.4 Student Rights at School: Discipline and Privacy
9.4a Student Discipline and Due Process Rights
Is it OK for teachers to use corporal punishment on a student?
When are disciplinary actions considered to be child abuse?
9.4b Student Privacy: Search and Seizure of Student Property
Can school officials search students’ personal possessions?
Can school administrators search student lockers?
Can students expect privacy in their school lockers?
Can schools randomly test student athletes for illegal drug use?
Does random drug testing of student athletes violate their privacy?
Can all students who participate in competitive extracurricular activities be required to take random drug tests?
9.4c Student Records and Privacy Rights
Do teachers and other educators have unlimited rights to use student records?
9.5 Students’ Rights at School: Freedom of Speech, Harassment, and Disability
9.5a Schools Can Regulate Student Speech and Expression
Can students express their political views silently and nondisruptively in school?
Are all student speech and expressions protected while in school?
Can schools regulate the content of student newspapers?
Can students be disciplined for their speech on the internet/websites?
Can students be disciplined for cyberbullying other students or staff?
Can schools regulate student dress and appearance?
Can public schools require students to follow dress codes?
9.5b Sexual Discrimination and Harassment of Students
If a teacher sexually harasses a student, can the student sue both the school district and the teacher as an individual for monetary damages?
Can school boards be held liable for student-to-student sexual harassment?
Can students be sued for harassing another student?
9.5c Students With Disabilities
How much benefit should special education provide to students with disabilities?
Do school districts have to pay tuition for students with disabilities to attend private educational facilities?
Key Take-Aways
Teacher Scenario: It’s Your Turn
Notes
Chapter 10 School Governance and Structure
10.1 The Federal Role in Education
10.1a Brief History of the U.S. Department of Education
10.1c The Judicial Branch
Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
Plyler v. Doe16
Rowley and Endrew Special Education Cases
10.1d Student Assessment at the National Level
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
10.2 The State Players in Education Policy and Practice
10.2a The Public
10.b The State Legislature
10.2c The Governor
10.2d The State Supreme Court
10.2e The State Board of Education
10.2f The Chief State School Officer
10.2g The State Department of Education
10.3 The Local Leaders Who Shape Education Policy and Practice
10.3a The Local School Board
10.3b The School District Superintendent
Superintendent Responsibilities
10.3c The District Central Office
Work Responsibilities
10.3d The Principal
Principals Affect Student Achievement
10.3e The Teacher
10.3f Support Staff
10.3g School Counselors
Research on School Counselors and Student Success
10.3h The Special Education Teacher
10.3i The School Nurse
10.4 Structural Issues That Influence Schools’ Efficiency and Effectiveness
10.4a Consolidating School Districts
10.4b Reducing School Size
10.4c Organizing Schools by Grade Levels
Research on School Grade Configuration
Key Take-Aways
Teacher Scenario: It’s Your Turn
Notes
Chapter 11 School Finance
11.1 Money Matters in Education
11.2 Education as an Investment in Human Capital
11.2a Earning Potential
11.2b Employability
11.2c Public Social Costs
11.3 Federal, State, and Local Sources of School Revenue
11.4 Increases in Education Spending Since 1960
11.4a Reasons for Increased Education Spending
11.4b National, Regional, and Local Education Expenses
11.5 Expenditures: How School Districts Spend Money
11.5a Spending Categories
11.5b Teacher Salaries
11.6 Equity Issues in School Funding
11.6a Spending per Pupil
11.6b Funding Inequalities
11.6c The Cost of Educating Low-Income Students
11.6d Salary Inequalities
11.6e Facility Inequalities and Student Achievement
11.7 Current Trends in Education Finance
11.7a Taxpayer Resistance to Increased Taxes for Education
11.7b Using Taxpayer Dollars for Private and Religious Schools
Key Take-Aways
Teacher Scenario: It’s Your Turn
Notes
Chapter 12 Curriculum and Instruction
12.1 Curriculum Helps Teachers and Students Meet Educational Goals
12.1a What Is Curriculum?
12.1b How Curriculum Addresses Education’s Goals
12.1c Types of Curricular Organization
Subject-centered Curricula
Learner-centered Curricula
Problem-Based Curricula
Integrated Curricula
College and Career Readiness Curricula
Cocurricula
The Hidden Curricula
12.1d Selecting Curricula Emphases
Cognitive or Affective?
Depth or Breadth?
Here or There?
Content or Skills?
12.2 Public School Curriculum Responds to Intellectual, Societal, and Political Influences
12.2a Pendulum Swings
12.2b National Curriculum Standards
Goals 2000
Common Core States Standards
12.2c Debates Over Standards
12.3 Educating the Whole Child
12.3a The Search for Curricular Balance
Civics
Physical Education, the Arts, and Social–Emotional Learning
12.3b Rethinking Curriculum
12.4 How People Learn
12.4a Instruction Makes Learning Happen
12.4b Context and Culture Influence Learning
12.4c The Learning Process
12.4d Knowledge and Reasoning
12.4e Motivation to Learn
12.4f Lifelong Learning
12.4g What This Means for Teaching
12.5 Teaching Effectiveness and Student Achievement
12.5a Rethinking Teaching With Technology
12.5b Equity and Internet-Based Learning
Key Take-Aways
Teacher Scenario: It’s Your Turn
Notes
Chapter 13 Standards, Assessment, and Accountability
13.1 How Teachers and Schools Use Assessment to Enhance Teaching and Learning
13.1a The Educational Assessment Learning Cycle
13.1b Purposes of Assessment
Placement Decisions
Determining Student Attainment
13.1c Types of School Assessments
13.2 Educational Standards Contribute to Achievement and Accountability
13.2a Educational Standards, Achievement, and Accountability
13.2b Why We Use Educational Standards
Standards and National Norms
Standards and Equity
Standards and “Above-Average” Students
Standards and Fairness
13.2c Types of Educational Standards
World-Class Standards
Real-World Standards
Content- or Discipline-Based Standards
National Standards
Criticism of Content Standards
Performance Standards
Opportunity-to-Learn Standards
Professional Educator Standards
13.2d Determining Whether Students Have Met the Standards
13.2e Why Standards Differ
13.3 Principles of School Assessments and Teachers’ Practices
13.3a Characteristics of High-Quality Assessments
Fairness
Validity
Reliability
Controlling Environmental Conditions
Opportunity to Learn
Using Tests Ethically
13.3b The Cases For and Against Standardized Testing
Superior and Inferior Schools
13.4 Accountability for Educational Outcomes
13.4a Accountability and Test Scores
13.4b “Holistic” or Student-Centered Accountability
13.4c Goals of Education and Accountability
Key Take-Aways
Teacher Scenario: It’s Your Turn
Notes
Chapter 14 Educating Everyone’s Children
14.1 A Brief History of the Effective Schools Movement
14.1a The Early Equal Opportunity Studies
14.1b Early Effective Schools Studies
Effective Schools Study Begins
Types of Effective Schools Research
14.1c Ronald Edmonds and the “Effective Schools” Concept
Effective Schools Correlates
14.1d Additional Effective Schools Findings
Limitations of the Early Effective Schools Research
14.1e Effective Schools Research, 1990 to Today
14.1f Effective Schools Practices Have Become Best Practices
14.2 Correlates of Effective Schools
14.2a Correlate: Strong Instructional Leadership
Research and Discussion
What Strong Instructional Leadership Looks Like in Schools
Research and Discussion
What a Clear and Focused Mission Looks Like in Schools
Research and Discussion
What a Safe and Orderly Environment Looks Like in Schools
Research and Discussion
What a Climate of High Expectations Looks Like in Schools
14.2e Correlate: Frequent Monitoring of Student Progress
Research and Discussion
What Frequent Monitoring of Student Progress Looks Like in Schools
Research and Discussion
What Positive Home–School Relations Look Like in Schools
Curriculum and Opportunity to Learn
Effective Teaching and Opportunity to Learn
Time and Opportunity to Learn
What Opportunity to Learn/Time on Task Looks Like in Schools
14.3 Effective Schools Reprise
14.4 Educating Everyone’s Children
14.4a Public Schools and the Public Good in a Pluralistic Society
14.4b Teaching as a Public Service
Key Take-Aways
Teacher Scenario: It’s Your Turn
Notes
Glossary