Forensic Toxicology: Drug Use and Misuse

✍ Scribed by Atholl Johnston (editor), David Holt (editor), Susannah Davies (editor)

• Publisher: Royal Society of Chemistry
• Year: 2016
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 660
• Edition: 1
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

New designer drugs, access to databases, and changing availability of samples for analysis have changed the face of modern forensic toxicology in recent years. Forensic Toxicology: Drug Use and Misuse brings together the latest information direct from experts in each sub-field of the discipline providing a broad overview of current thinking and the most innovative approaches to case studies.
The text begins with an in-depth discussion of pharmaco­epidemiology, including information on the value of nationwide databases in forensic toxicology. The use and abuse of drugs in driving, sport and the workplace are then discussed by industry experts who are conducting case work in their field. Not only are new drug groups discussed (NPS), but also their constantly changing impact on drug legislation. Synthetic cannabinoids, khat and mephodrone are discussed in detail. Following a section devoted to legislation and defence, readers will find comprehensive chapters covering sample choice reflecting the increasing use of hair and oral fluid, and also the less commonly used sweat and nail analysis. New and old case examples are compared and contrasted in the final part of the book, which will enable readers to understand how drugs impact on each other and how the interpretative outcome of a case are dependent on many aspects.
From use of pharmaceutical drugs in a clinical setting, through smart drugs to new psychoactive drugs, this book documents the wide range in which drugs today are abused. This book will be an essential resource for postgraduate students in forensic toxicology, and for researchers in forensic toxicology laboratories who need the latest data and knowledge.

✦ Table of Contents

Title Page
Copyright Page
Preface
Contents
1 Introduction to Forensic Toxicology and the Value of a Nationwide Database
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Forensic Toxicology in Sweden
1.3 Analytical Methods
1.4 Post-mortem Toxicology
1.5 Alcohol and Drug Impaired Driving
1.6 Drug-facilitated Sexual Assault
1.7 Concluding Remarks
References
2 Forensic Pharmacology
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Drug Dose
2.3 Drug Absorption
2.4 Drug Bioavailability
2.5 Clearance
2.6 Half-life
2.7 Drug Biotransformation
2.8 Excretion
2.9 Tolerance
2.10 Adverse Drug Reactions
2.11 Conclusion
References
3 The Role of Amnesty Bins in Understanding the Pattern of Recreational Drugs and Novel Psychoactive Substances Being Used Within a Locality
3.1 Introduction
3.2 What are Amnesty Bins?
3.3 Data from Amnesty Bins Studies
3.4 Expansion to Settings Outside of the Night-time Economy
3.5 Conclusion
References
4 Contamination of Water with Drugs and Metabolites
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Drug Consumption
4.3 Sources of Drugs in Water
4.4 Ecotoxicology
4.5 Sampling and Analysis
4.6 Sewage Epidemiology
4.7 Drugs in Surface Waters
4.8 Drugs in Groundwater and Drinking Water
4.9 Conclusion
References
5 Understanding the Utility of Analysis of Anonymous Pooled Urine from Standalone Urinals in Detecting and Monitoring Recreational Drug Use
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Wastewater Analysis
5.3 Anonymous Pooled Urine Sample Analysis
5.4 Ethical Considerations
5.5 Results from Analysis of Anonymous Pooled Urine Samples
5.6 Conclusions
References
6 Mephedrone and New Psychoactive Substances
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Analysis
6.3 Drug Types
6.4 Amphetamines/Phenylethylmines
6.5 Piperazines
6.6 Tryptamines
6.7 Cathinones
6.8 Aminoindanes
6.9 Synthetic Cannabinoids
6.10 New Psychoactive Substances in Investigations
References
7 Novel Psychoactives in New Zealand
7.1 Introduction: The New Zealand Drug Scene
7.2 Party Pills
7.3 Kava
7.4 Cathinones
7.5 NBOMe Compounds
7.6 Conclusions
References
8 Cannabis and Synthetic Cannabinoids
8.1 Cannabis
8.2 Medicinal Cannabinoids
8.3 Synthetic Cannabinoids
8.4 Conclusion
Further Reading
References
9 Khat – Chewing it Over: Continuing “Cultural Cement”, Cardiac Challenge or Catalyst for Change?
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Natural Range and Cultivation
9.3 History of Use and Diffusion
9.4 Global Epidemiology
9.5 Transportation, Trade and Price
9.6 Legal and Religious Control
9.7 Use
9.8 Social and Criminal Effects
9.9 Seizures of Khat
9.10 Chemistry
9.11 Pharmacology
9.12 Toxicology
9.13 Deaths
9.14 Toxicological Findings
9.15 Conclusions
References
10 Role of Analytical Screening in the Management and Assessment of Acute Recreational Drug Toxicity
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Patterns of Acute Toxicity
10.3 Studies Assessing Toxicological Screening in the Night-time Economy Setting
10.4 Role of Toxicological Screening in the Emergency Department
10.5 National and International Guidelines
10.6 Conclusions
References
11 Workplace Drug Testing
11.1 How Does Workplace Testing Differ from Other Sorts of Drug Testing?
11.2 Why Test?
11.3 Confidentiality Issues
11.4 How To Test?
11.5 What Substances To Test For?
11.6 What Cut-offs To Apply?
11.7 The “Testing Process”
11.8 Incidence of Drug Use at Work
11.9 Conclusion
Recommended Reading
References
12 Current Issues in Human Sport Drug Testing: Clenbuterol, Erythropoietin and Xenon
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Clenbuterol
12.3 Erythropoietin and Micro-dosing
12.4 Xenon and Sport
12.5 Conclusion
References
13 Drugs and Driving
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Determining Thresholds for Drug Driving
13.3 Consideration of Sampling Time
13.4 Alcohol
13.5 Risk Estimates
13.6 Illicit Drug Use
13.7 Psychoactive Medicines
13.8 Poly-substance Use
References
14 Alcohol Technical Defences in Road Traffic Casework
14.1 The Law (United Kingdom)
14.2 Evidential Samples
14.3 Pre-analytical Considerations
14.4 Alcohol Calculations
14.5 Report Content
14.6 Medication
Additional Reading
References
15 New Psychoactive Substances and the Criminal Law1
15.1 Regulating Psychoactive Substances that Fall Outside the UN Drug Conventions
15.2 The Introduction of the UK Psychoactive Substances Act (2016)
15.3 Meaning of “Psychoactive Substance” and “Exempted Substances”
15.4 Principal Offences Under the 2016 Act
15.5 Other Models for Regulating NPS
References
16 Scheduling of Drugs in the United States
16.1 Scheduling Drugs and Pharmaceuticals in the USA
16.2 Drugs that are Categorized in Schedule I
16.3 Schedule II
16.4 Schedule III
16.5 Schedule IV
16.6 Schedule V
16.7 Conclusion
Further Reading
17 Drug Legislation in New Zealand
17.1 Historical Background and New Zealand Drug Policy Framework
17.2 Scheduling of Substances under the MoDA
17.3 Controlled Drug Analogue Provisions of the MoDA
17.4 The Appearance of “Party Drugs” and the Introduction of “Restricted Substance” Class
17.5 Consequences
17.6 The Rise of “Synthetic Cannabinoid” Products
17.7 Introduction of “Temporary Class Drug Orders”
17.8 The Psychoactive Substances Regime
Declaration of Interest
References
18 Use of Reference Materials in Toxicology
18.1 Importance of Standardisation and Harmonisation
18.2 The Language of Metrology
18.3 International System of Units
18.4 Metrological Traceability
18.5 Measurement Uncertainty
18.6 (Certified) Reference Materials
18.7 Quality Control Materials
18.8 Accreditation for Reference Material Producers
18.9 Requirements for Independent Sources
18.10 Certificates of Analysis
18.11 Structural Confirmation
18.12 Purity
18.13 Guidance for Selection and Use of Reference Materials
18.14 Distinguishing between Chemicals and Reference Materials
18.15 Weighing Environment
18.16 Neat versus Solutions
18.17 Free Base versus Salts,
18.18 Recovering Reference Materials from their Container
18.19 Dealing with Low Quantity Reference Materials
18.20 Correct Selection of Solvent
18.21 Stability
18.22 Databases for Certified Reference Materials
18.23 CCQM
18.24 Import and Export of Controlled Drug Reference Materials
18.25 Import and Export Exemptions
Supplementary Reading
References
19 Nail Analysis in Forensic Toxicology
19.1 Introduction
19.2 The Nail
19.3 The Nail in Forensic and Analytical Toxicology
19.4 Challenges and Further Considerations
19.5 Conclusions
References
20 Hair Testing in Forensic Toxicology
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Cut-off Levels
20.3 Laboratories and Accreditation
20.4 Collection Process
20.5 Queries on Reported Results
20.6 Expert Report and Interpretation
20.7 Types of Analysis Requested
20.8 Cannabinoids Results Seen in Hair
20.9 Alcohol Markers and Hair Testing
20.10 Patterns of Results Obtained
References
21 Drugs in Oral Fluid
21.1 Introduction
21.2 What is Oral Fluid?
21.3 Mechanisms of Drug Entry into Saliva
21.4 Windows of Detection
21.5 Oral Fluid Sample Collection and Storage
21.6 Detection of Inadvertent Exposure to Drugs
21.7 Analysis of Oral Fluid Samples for Drugs
21.8 Oral Fluid Guidelines and Standards
21.9 Conclusion
References
22 Sweat as an Alternative Biological Matrix
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Skin and Sweat
22.3 Analytical Issues
22.4 Monitoring Drug Exposure through Sweat: Forensic Applications
22.5 Interpreting Analytical Results
22.6 Conclusions
References
23 Smart Drugs
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Non-medical Use
23.3 Safety of Smart Drugs
23.4 Ethics of Smart Drugs
23.5 Future of Smart Drugs
References
24 Substandard and Counterfeit Medicines
24.1 Introduction: Nature of the Problem
24.2 Substandard and Counterfeit Medicines
24.3 Factors Affecting the Spread of Counterfeit and Substandard Medicines
24.4 Methods for Detecting Counterfeit Medicines
24.5 Safety of Drug Use: Branded versus Generic
24.6 Excipients in Medicines
24.7 Conclusion
References
25 Detection of Drugs and Drug Metabolites from Fingerprints
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Exogenous Drug Residue in Fingerprints
25.3 Endogenously Excreted Drugs in Fingerprints
25.4 Other Chemical Information in Fingerprints
25.5 Conclusions
References
26 Investigating Drug Metabolism of New Psychoactive Substances Using Human Liver Preparations and Animal Studies
26.1 Introduction
26.2 In vitro Approaches
26.3 Subcellular Fractions
26.4 Heterologously Expressed Single Enzymes
26.5 Hepatocytes
26.6 In vivo Approaches (Animal Studies)
26.7 Concluding Remarks
References
27 Case Examples and Discussion
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Alcohol
27.3 Carbon Monoxide
27.4 Cyanide
27.5 Potassium and Tablets in the Stomach
27.6 Cocaine
27.7 Post-mortem Redistribution
27.8 Decomposed Bodies
27.9 Excited Delirium
27.10 Doping and DFSA (Drug Facilitated Sexual Assault)
27.11 Plant Poisons
27.12 Morphine
27.13 Conclusions
References
Subject Index