Forensic Document Examination in the 21st Century

✍ Scribed by Miriam Angel; Jan Seaman Kelly

• Publisher: CRC Press
• Year: 2020
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 337
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Forensic Document Examination in the 21st Century covers the latest technology and techniques providing a complete resource on contemporary issues and methods in forensic document examination. Forensic document examiners provide their findings as expert testimony in court. Due to rapid changes in technology, including digital documents, printing and photocopying capabilities, and more, there is a great need for this up-to-date reference.

The examination of documents can include comparison of handwriting or hand-printing; detection of alterations or photocopier and computer manipulation; restoration or decipherment of erased and obliterated writing; visualization of latent impressions; the identification of printing processes; and differentiation of inks. Computer-generated documents are prevalent, and electronically-captured signatures are becoming more widespread, meaning the knowledge of advances in technology and adoption of new validated techniques and methods of document examination are crucial to the reliability of forensic opinions.

Forensic Document Examination in the 21st Century includes the latest research on the subject and with contributions from leading experts on their various areas of expertise. The book will be a welcome addition to the literature and support the foundational basis for methods and procedures for use it expert testimony in court, serving as a resource for forensic document examiners, trainees, and those in the criminal and legal communities who use the services of expert document examiners and witnesses

✦ Table of Contents

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface
Editors
Contributors
Section I: Modern Standards,
1 Forensic Document Examiner Training
1.1 Skills and Aptitude of the Trainee
1.2 Foundation of Training
1.3 Components of a Training Plan
1.4 Conclusion
References
2 Standards in Forensic Document Examination
3 The Logical Approach to Evidence Evaluation
3.1 Introduction
3.2 History
3.3 Inference and Reasoning
3.4 Key Concepts
3.5 Elements of the Logical Approach Specific to FDE Work
3.5.1 Consider the Framework
3.5.2 Set the Propositions
3.5.3 Declare Expectations
3.5.4 Conduct the Examination
3.5.5 Evaluate Findings in Terms of the Propositions
3.5.6 Determine the Opinion
3.6 Sub-Propositions and Multiple Propositions
3.7 Challenges and Concerns
3.8 Conclusion
References
4 Cognitive Bias and Handwriting Examination: Concepts, Current Knowledge, and Future Practice
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Cognitive Organization of Conceptual Knowledge
4.3 Schemas and Expertise
4.4 Human Cognition: Cognitive Misers and Motivated Tacticians
4.5 Confirmation Bias
4.6 Contextual Bias
4.7 Cognitive Human Factors Research: Current Knowledge and Future Directions for Forensic Document Examination Studies
4.7.1 Direct Priming
4.7.2 The Representative Heuristic
4.8 Summary
4.8.1 Confirmation Bias
4.8.2 Reducing the Impact of Extraneous and Potentially Biasing Information
References
5 Forensic Intelligence
6 Expert Testimony: The Path to the Jury
6.1 Structure of the Court System
6.2 Overview of Civil Litigation
6.3 Appellate Courts
6.4 Overview of Criminal Litigation
6.5 Arbitration
6.6 Rules Relating to Expert Testimony – The Expert Report
6.7 The Judge’s Role in the Admissibility of Expert Testimony
6.8 Court Opinions
6.9 The Daubert Trilogy
6.10 Conclusion
Section II: Handwriting Topics and Research
7 Development of Habitual Handwriting Characteristics in Elementary School Students
7.1 Early Findings on Handwriting Development
7.2 Development of Handwriting Skill
7.3 Development of Non-class Characteristic Handwriting Habits Over Time
7.3.1 First Approach: Analysis of the Word and
7.3.2 Second Approach: Analysis of the Full Sample
7.3.3 Study Findings
7.4 Conclusions
Reference
8 Evaluation of Handwriting Evidence
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Unnatural Handwriting
8.2.1 Handwriting Production
8.2.2 FDE Skill in Distinguishing between Disguise and Simulation
8.2.3 Disguise Behavior in Signatures
8.2.4 Simulation Behavior in Signatures
8.2.5 Disguise Behavior in Handwritten Text
8.2.6 Simulation Behavior in Handwritten Text
8.2.7 Success of Simulation
8.3 Other Internal or External Factors
8.4 Complexity of Writing
8.5 Foreign Scripts and Legibility of Writing
8.6 Amount of Writing
8.7 Non-Original Documents
8.8 Nature of Known Writing
References
9 Forensic Hand-Printing Examination
9.1 Learning to Hand-Print
9.2 Hand-Printing Examination
9.3 History of Hand-Printing Identification
9.4 Reliability of FDE Examinations of Hand-Printing
References
10 Handwriting Complexity
10.1 Foundation for Complexity in Handwriting Examination
10.2 Complexity Theory in Forensic Document Examination
10.3 Complexity Models
10.4 Complexity and Extended Handwriting
10.5 Factors Related to Complexity
10.6 Conclusion
References
11 Examination of Foreign-Influenced Handwriting
11.1 Foreign-Influenced Handwriting
11.2 Supporting Basis for FDEs to Examine Foreign Handwriting Cases
11.3 Handling Foreign Handwriting Cases
11.4 Foreign-Influenced Writing Resources
11.5 Conclusion
References
12 Frequency of Occurrence Proportions in Handwriting
12.1 What Is Frequency Occurrence?
12.2 Historical Application
12.3 Database Feature Selection
12.4 Population Sampling
12.5 Frequency of Occurrence Proportions and Forensic Document Examination
12.6 Examination Limitations
12.7 Use in Court
12.8 Future Expansion
References
13 Examination and Comparison of Handwriting by Forensic Document Examiners Compared to Laypersons
13.1 Research into the Ability to Differentiate Homogeneous Writing Samples
13.1.1 The Palmer Method of Handwriting
13.1.2 Writing Specimen Collection
13.1.3 Examination by the FDE Group
13.1.3.1 Method of Scoring and Accuracy Scores for the FDE Group
13.1.4 Examination of Specimens by the Laypersons Group
13.1.5 Comparison of Scores by FDEs to Those of Laypersons
13.2 Comparison of Study Results
13.3 Conclusion
References
Section III: Applications of Technology in Forensic Document Examination
14 Forensic Analysis of Handwritten Electronic Signatures
14.1 Where Are Electronic Signatures Found and Why Is It Important to Be able to Authenticate Them?
14.2 History of Electronic Signature Laws
14.3 Dynamic Signature Research
14.4 Tablets and Capture Devices
14.5 What Is Gained and What Is Lost in the Analysis of a Dynamic Signature?
14.6 Electronic Signature Analysis in Casework
14.7 Electronic Signature Analysis in Court
14.8 Looking Forward
References
15 Indentation Development and Visualization
15.1 Sources of Indentation
15.2 History of Development Methods
15.3 Oblique (Raking) Illumination
15.4 Electrostatic Detection Device (EDD)
15.4.1 Pre-Handling of Documents
15.4.2 Charging
15.4.3 Toner Application
15.4.4 Cascade Development
15.4.5 Brush or Applicator Development
15.4.6 Aerosol or Cloud Development
15.4.7 Recording Results
15.4.8 Indentation Test Sheets or Strips
15.4.9 Why Does It Work?
15.5 Indentation Development for Printer/Paper Handling Marks
15.6 Overlays of EDD Lifts and Image Enhancement
15.7 Fracture Match Comparisons
15.8 Sequencing of Developed EDD Impressions and Visible Writing
15.8.1 Non-Ballpoint Pens and EDD Impressions
15.8.2 Ballpoint Pens and EDD Impressions
15.9 Other Techniques for Indentation Development
15.10 Thermal Paper
15.11 Conclusion
References
16 Examination of Cut, Torn, Shredded, and Perforated Documents
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Reassembly Methods
16.2.1 Preliminary Assessment
16.2.2 Sorting
16.2.3 Associating the Pieces
16.2.4 Positive Fracture Matching
16.2.5 Assembling the Pieces
16.2.6 Finishing
16.3 Specific Types of Document Disassembly
16.3.1 Cut Documents
16.3.1.1 Matching
16.3.2 Torn Documents
16.3.2.1 Associating/Assembling
16.3.3 Perforated Documents
16.3.3.1 Paper Safety Matches
16.3.4 Shredded Documents
16.3.4.1 Shred direction
16.3.4.2 Types of Shredded Documents (Paper vs. Plastic)
16.3.4.3 Reassembly
16.3.4.4 Computer-Aided Assembly
16.3.4.5 Finishing the Project
16.4 Conclusion
References
17 Electrophotography
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Steps of the Electrophotographic Process
17.3 Common Questions for Electrophotography Output
17.4 Copy Platen and Optical System Defects
17.5 Spatially-Periodic Defects
17.6 Obtaining Specimen Output from Electrophotographic Devices
17.7 Toner Composition
17.8 Banding in Electrophotography
17.9 Conclusion
References
18 Typography
18.1 Introduction
18.2 History of Typefaces
18.3 Typographic Terminology
18.4 Typewriters
18.5 Typeface Classification
18.6 Word Processors, Computers, and Desktop Publishing
18.7 Typography Applied to Document Examination
18.8 Software to Design/Change Typeface
18.9 Sources of Typefaces
18.10 Point Sizes and Definition
18.11 Typography Rulers
18.12 Spacing of Type
18.13 Weight of Typeface
18.14 Typography in Casework: An Example
18.15 Summary
References
19 Computer Generated Documents
19.1 Computer Files
19.1.1 Software and Printer Drivers
19.1.2 Computer Font Files
19.1.3 Image Files
19.1.4 Compression
19.1.4.1 Uncompressed Image Files
19.1.4.2 Lossless Compressed Image Files
19.1.4.3 Lossy Compressed Image Files
19.2 Color Models, Spaces, and Depth
19.2.1 Color Model
19.2.2 Color Space
19.2.3 Color Gamut
19.2.4 Digital Imaging in FDE: Cameras
19.2.5 Digital Imaging in FDE: Scanners
19.3 Hardcopy Printing Devices
19.3.1 Impact Printers
19.3.2 Nonimpact Printers
19.4 Data Encoding of Physical Media
19.4.1 OCR-A and -B
19.4.2 Magnetic Stripe
19.4.3 Barcodes
19.4.5 Counterfeit Protection System (CPS)
19.4.6 Eurion Constellation and Anti-Counterfeiting Printing
19.5 Conclusion
References
20 Radiography
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Ionizing Radiation Types
20.3 Basic Atomic Structure
20.4 X-Rays
20.5 Gamma Rays (ɣ-Rays)
20.6 Neutron Radiography
20.7 Radiography Applied to Document Examination
20.8 Summary
References
21 Digital Examination Techniques and Considerations
21.1 Hardware and Software Considerations
21.1.1 Scanners
21.1.2 Digital Photography
21.1.3 Equipment
21.2 Direct Examinations
21.2.1 Background Color Removal
21.2.2 Ink Differentiation
21.2.3 Obliterated Writing
21.2.4 Digital Examination of Charred Documents
21.2.5 Deciphering Carbon Paper
21.3 Comparative Examinations
21.3.1 Overlays and Grids
21.3.1.1 Changing Layer Opacity
21.3.1.2 Multiply Layer Blending Mode
21.3.1.3 Layer Transparency
21.3.2 Tracings and Copied Signatures
21.3.3 Typewriting
21.3.4 Impression Comparisons
21.3.4.1 Mask Embossing and Interfering Impressions
21.3.4.2 Recover Missing Pages
21.3.4.3 Non-Contemporaneous Entries
21.3.5 Stamped Impression Comparisons
21.3.6 Photocopier/Printer Comparisons
21.3.7 Altered Documents
21.4 Demonstratives
21.4.1 Live Demonstrations
21.5 Conclusion
References
22 Computational Analysis of Documents
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Machine Learning
22.2.1 Visualizations
22.2.2 Predictive Coding
22.2.3 Deep Learning and Neural Networks
22.2.4 Uses and Limitations
22.3 Organizations, Conferences, and Meetings
22.4 Competitions and Test Datasets
22.5 Software
22.6 Optical Character Recognition
22.6.1 OCR Software Applications
22.7 Conclusion
References
Index