Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practice

✍ Scribed by P.J. Fellows

• Publisher: Woodhead Publishing (Elsevier)
• Year: 2022
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 802
• Edition: 5
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practice, Fifth Edition  includes emerging trends and developments in food processing. The book has been fully updated to provide comprehensive, up-to-date technical information. For each food processing unit operation, theory and principles are first described, followed by equipment used commercially and its operating conditions, the effects of the operation on micro-organisms, and the nutritional and sensory qualities of the foods concerned. Part I describes basic concepts; Part II describes operations that take place at ambient temperature; Part III describes processing using heat; Part IV describes processing by removing heat; and Part V describes post-processing operations.

This book continues to be the most comprehensive reference in the field, covering all processing unit operations in a single volume. The title brings key terms and definitions, sample problems, recommended further readings and illustrated processes.

✦ Table of Contents

Title Page
Contents
Chapter 1 ---Properties-of-foods-and-principles-of_2022_Food-Processing-Techn
Chapter-2---Raw-material-preparation_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
2 Raw material preparation
2.1 Cleaning foods
2.1.1 Wet cleaning
2.1.1.1 Methods to remove insects and microorganisms
2.1.2 Dry methods of cleaning
2.1.2.1 Magnetic and electrostatic separators
2.1.2.2 Screens and shape sorters
2.2 Sorting and grading
2.2.1 Shape and size sorting
2.2.1.1 Theory
2.2.1.2 Equipment
2.2.2 Weight sorting
2.2.3 Colour and machine vision sorting and grading systems
2.2.4 Other types of grader
2.3 Peeling and coring
2.3.1 Coring
References
Chapter-3---Extraction-and-separation-of-food-co_2022_Food-Processing-Techno
3 Extraction and separation of food components
3.1 Centrifugation
3.1.1 Theory
3.1.2 Equipment
3.1.2.1 Separation of immiscible liquids
3.1.2.2 Centrifugal clarifiers
3.1.2.3 Desludging, decanting or dewatering centrifuges
3.2 Filtration
3.2.1 Theory
3.2.2 Equipment
3.2.2.1 Pressure filters
3.2.2.2 Vacuum filters
3.3 Expression
3.3.1 Theory
3.3.2 Equipment
3.3.2.1 Batch presses
3.3.2.2 Continuous presses
3.4 Extraction using solvents
3.4.1 Theory
3.4.2 Solvents
3.4.3 Equipment
3.4.3.1 Single-stage solvent extractors
3.4.3.2 Multistage solvent extractors
3.4.3.3 Continuous solvent extractors
3.4.4 Development of alternatives to organic solvents
3.4.4.1 Supercritical carbon dioxide
Microwave-assisted extraction
Ultrasound-assisted extraction
Pulse electric field (PEF)–assisted extraction
High pressure–assisted extraction
Aqueous enzyme extraction
3.5 Membrane separation
3.5.1 Theory
3.5.1.1 Hydrostatic pressure systems
3.5.2 Equipment and applications
3.5.2.1 Reverse osmosis
3.5.2.2 Nanofiltration, ultrafiltration and microfiltration
3.5.2.3 Pervaporation
3.5.3 Types of membrane systems
3.5.3.1 Ion exchange and electrodialysis
3.6 Effects on foods and microorganisms
3.6.1 Effect on microorganisms
References
Chapter-4---Size-reduction_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
4 Size reduction
4.1 Size reduction of solid foods
4.1.1 Theory
4.1.2 Equipment
4.1.2.1 Cutting, slicing, dicing, mincing, shredding and flaking equipment
4.1.2.2 Milling equipment
4.1.2.3 Ball mills
4.1.2.4 Disc (or plate) mills
4.1.2.5 Hammer mills
4.1.2.6 Jet pulverising mills
4.1.2.7 Roller mills
4.1.2.8 Pulping equipment
4.1.3 Developments in size reduction technology
4.1.4 Effect on foods
4.1.4.1 Sensory characteristics
4.1.4.2 Nutritional value
4.1.5 Effect on microorganisms
4.2 Size reduction in liquid foods
4.2.1 Theory
4.2.2 Emulsifying agents and stabilisers
4.2.3 Equipment
4.2.3.1 Membrane emulsification
4.2.3.2 Pressure homogenisers
4.2.3.3 Rotor–stator (or high-shear) homogenisers and colloid mills
4.2.3.4 Ultrasonic homogenisers
4.2.4 Effect on foods
4.2.4.1 Viscosity or texture
4.2.4.2 Colour, aroma and nutritional value
4.2.5 Effect on microorganisms
References
Chapter-5---Mixing--forming--coating-and-encapsu_2022_Food-Processing-Techno
5 Mixing, forming, coating and encapsulation
5.1 Mixing
5.1.1 Theory of solids mixing
5.1.2 Theory of liquids mixing
5.1.3 Gas mixing and blending
5.1.4 Equipment
5.1.4.1 Mixers for dry powders or particulate solids
5.1.4.2 Mixers for low- or medium-viscosity liquids
5.1.4.3 Mixers for high-viscosity liquids and pastes
5.1.5 Effect on foods and microorganisms
5.2 Forming
5.2.1 Bread moulders
5.2.2 Pie, tart and biscuit formers
5.2.3 Confectionery moulders and depositors
5.2.3.1 Moulding equipment
5.2.3.2 Depositors
5.2.4 Cold extrusion
5.2.5 Three-dimensional food printing
5.2.5.1 Extrusion-based printing (or ‘material jetting’)
5.2.5.2 Inkjet printing
5.2.5.3 Powder bed fusion
5.2.5.4 Binder jetting
5.2.5.5 Other applications
5.2.5.6 Constraints
5.2.5.7 Four-dimensional food printing
5.3 Coating foods
5.3.1 Coating materials
5.3.1.1 Chocolate and compound coatings
5.3.1.2 Chocolate tempering
5.3.1.3 Compound coatings
5.3.1.4 Batters, powders and breadcrumbs
5.3.2 Equipment
5.3.2.1 Enrobers
5.3.2.2 Dusting or breading equipment
5.3.2.3 Pan coating
5.3.2.4 Hard coatings
5.3.2.5 Soft coatings
5.3.2.6 Chocolate coating
5.3.3 Microencapsulation
5.3.3.1 Liposomes
5.3.3.2 Nanoparticles
5.3.3.3 Packaging applications
5.3.4 Edible barrier coatings
References
Chapter-6---Food-biotechnology_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
6 Food biotechnology
6.1 Fermentation technology
6.1.1 Theory
6.1.1.1 Batch culture
6.1.1.2 Continuous culture
6.1.2 Equipment
6.1.2.1 Submerged cultures
6.1.2.2 Temperature control
6.1.2.3 pH control
6.1.2.4 Dissolved oxygen control
6.1.2.5 Agitation control
6.1.2.6 Foaming control
6.1.2.7 Control of medium addition and fermentation time
6.1.2.8 Displays and data logging
6.1.2.9 Automatic control of fermenters
6.1.2.10 Solid substrate fermentations
6.1.2.11 Control of temperature and aeration
6.1.2.12 Moisture content
6.1.2.13 Equipment
6.1.3 Commercial food fermentations
6.1.4 Effects on foods
6.1.4.1 Sensory characteristics
6.1.4.2 Nutritional value
6.1.4.3 Safety
6.2 Microbial enzymes
6.2.1 Novel enzyme technologies
6.3 Bacteriocins and antimicrobial ingredients
6.3.1 Chitin and chitosans
6.4 Functional foods
6.4.1 Health and nutrition claims and regulation
6.4.2 Probiotic, prebiotic and synbiotic foods
6.5 Genetic modification
6.5.1 Genetically modified food crops
6.5.1.1 Legislation and public perceptions of genetically modified foods
6.5.1.2 Safety testing
6.5.2 Genetically modified microorganisms and their products
6.5.3 Marker-assisted selection
6.6 Nutritional genomics
References
Chapter-7---Minimal-processing-methods_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
7 Minimal processing methods
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Hurdle concepts
7.2 High pressure processing
7.2.1 Introduction
7.2.2 Theory
7.2.3 Equipment and operation
7.2.3.1 Operation
7.2.4 Process developments
7.2.4.1 Pulsed HPP systems
7.2.4.2 Combinations of HPP and other minimal processing technologies
7.2.5 Packaging
7.2.6 Effects on food components
7.2.7 Effects on enzymes
7.2.8 Inactivation of microorganisms
7.2.8.1 Effect on parasites and viruses
7.2.9 Regulation
7.2.10 Applications
7.2.10.1 Meat products
7.2.10.2 Seafoods
7.2.10.3 Dairy products
7.2.10.4 Fruit and vegetable products
7.2.10.5 Other potential applications
7.3 Irradiation
7.3.1 Introduction
7.3.2 Theory
7.3.2.1 Dose distribution
7.3.3 Equipment
7.3.4 Measurement of radiation dose
7.3.5 Detection of irradiated foods
7.3.6 Regulation
7.3.7 Applications
7.3.8 Effects on foods
7.3.8.1 Induced radioactivity and radiolytic products
7.3.8.2 Effects on nutritional and sensory properties
7.3.9 Effects on microorganisms
7.3.10 Effects on packaging
7.4 Ozone
7.4.1 Ozone production and use
7.4.2 Antimicrobial activity
7.4.3 Processing applications
7.4.3.1 Fruits and vegetables
7.4.3.2 Animal products
7.4.3.3 Dry foods
7.4.3.4 Packaging materials and equipment
7.4.3.5 Combined treatments
7.4.4 Limitations and potential toxicity
7.5 Power ultrasound
7.5.1 Theory
7.5.2 Processing equipment
7.5.3 Effect on microorganisms, enzymes and food components
7.6 PEF processing
7.6.1 Theory
7.6.2 Equipment and operation
7.6.3 Effects on microorganisms, enzymes and food components
7.6.4 Applications of PEF
7.6.5 Combinations of PEF and other treatments
7.6.6 Regulation
7.7 Pulsed light
7.7.1 Theory
7.7.2 Equipment
7.7.2.1 Applications
7.7.3 Effect on microorganisms, enzymes and food components
7.7.4 Regulation and use
7.8 Other minimal processing methods under development
7.8.1 Dense-phase carbon dioxide
7.8.1.1 DPCD in combination with other minimal processing techniques
7.8.1.2 Equipment
7.8.1.3 Effects on microorganisms and enzymes
7.8.1.4 Applications and effects on foods
7.8.2 Electric arc discharge processing and cold plasma
7.8.3 Oscillating magnetic fields
7.8.3.1 Equipment
7.8.4 Pulsed X-rays
References
Chapter-8 Part-III---Processing-by-application-of-heat_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
Part III Processing by application of heat
Chapter-8---Blanching_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
8 Blanching
8.1 Theory
8.2 Equipment
8.2.1 Steam blanchers
8.2.2 Hot-water blanchers
8.2.3 Newer blanching methods
8.3 Effect on foods
8.4 Effect on microorganisms
References
Chapter-9---Industrial-cooking_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
9 Industrial cooking
9.1 Cooking using moist heat
9.1.1 Equipment
9.1.1.1 Jacketed kettles
9.1.1.2 Bratt pans
9.1.1.3 Steamers
9.2 Sous vide cooking
9.2.1 Theory
9.2.2 Processing
9.2.3 Effects on foods
9.2.3.1 Meat
9.2.3.2 Fish and shellfish
9.2.3.3 Fruits and vegetables
9.3 Cooking using dry heat
9.3.1 Equipment
9.3.1.1 Stir fryers
9.3.1.2 Ovens
References
Chapter-10---Pasteurisation_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
10 Pasteurisation
10.1 Theory
10.2 Equipment
10.2.1 Pasteurisation of packaged foods
10.2.2 Pasteurisation of unpackaged liquids
10.2.3 Novel pasteurisation methods
10.2.3.1 Low temperature, short time (LTST) technology
10.2.3.2 Volumetric microwave heating
10.2.3.3 Ultra high-pressure homogenisation
10.2.3.4 Microfiltration
10.2.3.5 Pulsed UV light
10.3 Effects on foods
References
Chapter-11---Heat-sterilisation_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
11 Heat sterilisation
11.1 In-container sterilisation
11.1.1 Theory
11.1.1.1 Heat resistance of microorganisms
11.1.1.2 Rate of heat penetration
11.1.1.3 Process validation
11.1.1.4 Calculation of process times
11.1.1.5 Formula (or mathematical) method
11.1.1.6 Improved general (graphical) method
11.1.2 Retorting
11.1.2.1 Heating by saturated steam
11.1.2.2 Heating by hot water
11.1.2.3 Heating by flames
11.1.3 Equipment
11.1.3.1 Control of retorts
11.2 Ultrahigh temperature/aseptic processes
11.2.1 Theory
11.2.2 Processing
11.2.3 Equipment
11.2.3.1 Direct heating methods
11.2.3.2 Indirect heating methods
11.2.3.3 Other heating methods
11.3 Effects on foods
11.3.1 Canning
11.3.1.1 Colour
11.3.1.2 Flavour and aroma
11.3.1.3 Texture
11.3.1.4 Nutritional value
11.3.2 UHT processing
11.3.2.1 Colour and flavour
11.3.2.2 Texture
11.3.2.3 Nutritional value
References
Chapter-12---Evaporation-and-distillation_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
12 Evaporation and distillation
12.1 Evaporation
12.1.1 Theory
12.1.1.1 Temperature difference between the steam and boiling liquid
12.1.1.2 Boundary films
12.1.1.3 Deposits on heat transfer surfaces
Mass and heat balances
12.1.2 Improving the economics of evaporation
12.1.2.1 Reducing energy consumption
12.1.2.2 Multiple-effect evaporation
12.1.2.3 Vapour recompression
12.1.2.4 Reducing losses of concentrate or product quality
12.1.3 Equipment
12.1.3.1 Natural circulation evaporators
12.1.3.2 Forced circulation evaporators
12.1.3.3 Plate evaporators
12.1.3.4 Tubular evaporators
12.1.3.5 Mechanical (or agitated) thin-film evaporators
12.1.3.6 Condensers
12.1.3.7 Control of evaporators
12.1.4 Effect on foods and microorganisms
12.2 Distillation
12.2.1 Theory
12.2.1.1 Ideal mixtures
12.2.2 Equipment
12.2.3 Effects on foods and microorganisms
References
Chapter-13---Dehydration_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
13 Dehydration
13.1 Theory
13.1.1 Drying using heated air
13.1.1.1 Psychrometrics
13.1.1.2 Mechanism of drying
13.1.1.3 Constant rate period
13.1.1.4 Falling rate period
13.1.1.5 Calculation of drying rate
13.1.2 Drying using heated surfaces
13.2 Equipment
13.2.1 Hot-air dryers
13.2.1.1 Bin dryers
13.2.1.2 Cabinet (or tray) dryers
13.2.1.3 Conveyor dryers
13.2.1.4 Electrohydrodynamic drying
13.2.1.5 Explosion puff drying
13.2.1.6 Fluidised-bed dryers
13.2.1.7 Impingement dryers
13.2.1.8 Kiln dryers
13.2.1.9 Pneumatic dryers
13.2.1.10 Pulse combustion dryers
13.2.1.11 Rotary dryers
13.2.1.12 Spray dryers
13.2.1.13 Sun drying and solar dryers
13.2.1.14 Tunnel dryers
13.2.1.15 Ultrasonic and acoustic dryers
13.2.2 Heated-surface (or contact) dryers
13.2.2.1 Ball dryer
13.2.2.2 Drum (or roller) dryers
13.2.2.3 Vacuum band, vacuum shelf and vacuum puff dryers
13.2.2.4 Vertically agitated dryers
13.3 Control of dryers
13.4 Types of powders
13.4.1 Agglomeration
13.5 Rehydration
13.6 Effects on foods and microorganisms
13.6.1 Sensory properties
13.6.1.1 Texture
13.6.1.2 Flavour and aroma
13.6.1.3 Colour
13.6.2 Nutritional value
13.6.3 Effects on microorganisms
References
Chapter-14---Smoking_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
14 Smoking
14.1 Theory
14.1.1 Constituents in smoke
14.1.1.1 Flavour and aroma components
14.1.1.2 Preservative components and health concerns
14.1.2 Tasteless smoke
14.1.3 Liquid smoke
14.2 Processing
14.2.1 Equipment
14.3 Effects on foods
14.3.1 Organoleptic quality
14.3.2 Nutritional value
14.3.3 Health concerns
14.4 Effects on microorganisms
References
Chapter-15---Baking-and-roasting_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
15 Baking and roasting
15.1 Theory
15.2 Equipment
15.2.1 Direct and indirect heating
15.2.2 Energy-saving features
15.2.3 Batch and semicontinuous ovens
15.2.3.1 Deck and rack ovens
15.2.3.2 Rotary ovens
15.2.4 Continuous ovens
15.2.4.1 Tunnel ovens
15.2.4.2 Tray ovens
15.2.4.3 Impingement ovens
15.2.4.4 Spiral ovens
15.2.5 Control of ovens
15.3 Effects on foods and microorganisms
15.3.1 Changes to sensory characteristics
15.3.1.1 Texture
15.3.1.2 Flavour and aroma
15.3.1.3 Colour
15.3.2 Changes to nutritional value
15.3.3 Effects on microorganisms
15.3.3.1 Packaging
References
Chapter-16---Extrusion-cooking_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
16 Extrusion cooking
16.1 Theory
16.1.1 Properties of ingredients
16.1.1.1 Structure-forming materials
16.1.1.2 Other ingredients
16.1.2 Extruder-operating characteristics
16.2 Equipment
16.2.1 Single-screw extruders
16.2.2 Twin-screw extruders
16.2.3 Control of extruders
16.3 Applications
16.3.1 Confectionery products
16.3.2 Cereal products
16.3.2.1 Snackfoods
16.3.2.2 Breakfast cereals
16.3.2.3 Crispbread
16.3.3 Protein-based foods
16.3.3.1 Plant-based meat analogues
16.3.3.2 Weaning foods
16.3.3.3 Meat and fish products
16.4 Effect on foods and microorganisms
16.4.1 Sensory characteristics
16.4.2 Nutritional value
16.4.3 Effects on microorganisms
References
Chapter-17---Frying_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
17 Frying
17.1 Theory
17.1.1 Heat and mass transfer
17.1.1.1 Heat transfer
17.1.1.2 Frying time and temperature
17.1.1.3 Mass transfer
17.1.2 Types of oils used for frying
17.1.3 Oil absorption
17.1.3.1 Oil turnover
17.2 Equipment
17.2.1 Atmospheric fryers
17.2.2 Vacuum and pressure fryers
17.2.3 Control of fryer operation, oil filtration and heat recovery
17.2.3.1 Oil filtration
17.2.3.2 Heat recovery and control of emissions
17.3 Effects of frying on oils
17.4 Effects of frying on foods
17.4.1 Changes to food texture, colour and flavour
17.4.2 Nutritional changes and health concerns
17.4.2.1 Toxic compounds
17.4.2.2 Acrylamide
17.5 Effects of frying on microorganisms
References
Chapter-18---Dielectric--ohmic-and-infrared-hea_2022_Food-Processing-Technol
18 Dielectric, ohmic and infrared heating
18.1 Dielectric heating
18.1.1 Theory
18.1.2 Equipment
18.1.2.1 Microwave heaters
18.1.2.2 Radio frequency heaters
18.1.3 Applications
18.1.3.1 Dehydration
18.1.3.2 Pasteurisation and sterilisation
18.1.3.3 Thawing, melting and tempering
18.1.3.4 Baking
18.1.3.5 Other applications
18.1.4 Effects on foods and microorganisms
18.2 Ohmic heating
18.2.1 Theory
18.2.2 Equipment and applications
18.2.3 Effects on foods and microorganisms
18.3 Infrared heating
18.3.1 Theory
18.3.2 Equipment and applications
18.3.3 Effects on foods and microorganisms
References
Chapter-19 Part-IV---Processing-by-the-removal-of-heat_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
Part IV Processing by the removal of heat
Chapter-19---Heat-removal-by-refrigeration_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
19 Heat removal by refrigeration
19.1 Theory
19.1.1 Refrigerants and cryogens
19.1.1.1 Refrigerants
19.1.1.2 ‘Fourth generation’ refrigerants
19.1.1.3 Cryogens
19.1.2 The refrigeration cycle
19.1.3 Magnetic refrigeration
19.2 Equipment
19.2.1 Control of mechanical refrigerators
19.2.2 Temperature monitoring
19.2.2.1 Time–temperature indicators
References
Chapter-20---Cooling-and-chilling_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
20 Cooling and chilling
20.1 Cooling crops and carcasses
20.1.1 Theory
20.1.1.1 Cold storage
20.1.1.2 Cooling carcasses
20.1.2 Equipment
20.2 Chilling
20.2.1 Equipment
20.2.1.1 Mechanical chillers
20.2.1.2 Cryogenic chillers
20.2.1.3 Other methods of chilling
20.2.2 Chilling of processed foods
20.2.3 Cook–chill systems
20.2.4 Effects on sensory and nutritional qualities of foods
20.2.5 Effects on microorganisms
20.3 Cold storage
References
Chapter-21---Freezing_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
21 Freezing
21.1 Theory
21.1.1 Ice crystal formation
21.1.2 Solute concentration
21.1.3 Calculation of freezing time
21.1.4 Thawing
21.2 Equipment
21.2.1 Mechanical freezers
21.2.1.1 Refrigerated air freezers
21.2.1.2 Refrigerated liquid freezers
21.2.1.3 Refrigerated surface freezers
21.2.2 Cryogenic freezers
21.2.2.1 Hydrofluidisation and pumpable ice slurries
21.2.3 Developments in freezing technologies
21.2.3.1 High-pressure freezing and thawing
21.2.3.2 Ultrasound-assisted freezing
21.2.3.3 Magnetic freezing
21.2.3.4 Dehydrofreezing and cryoprotectants
21.2.3.5 Electrostatic field–assisted freezing and radio frequency freezing
21.2.4 Frozen storage
21.2.5 Thawing
21.3 Effects on foods
21.3.1 Freezing
21.3.1.1 Volume changes
21.3.2 Frozen storage
21.3.2.1 Recrystallisation
21.3.3 Thawing
21.4 Effects on microorganisms
References
Chapter-22---Freeze-drying-and-freeze-concentra_2022_Food-Processing-Technol
22 Freeze drying and freeze concentration
22.1 Freeze drying
22.1.1 Theory
22.1.1.1 Rate of heat transfer
22.1.1.2 Rate of mass transfer
22.1.2 Equipment
22.1.2.1 Contact (or conduction) freeze dryers
22.1.2.2 Radiant freeze dryers
22.1.2.3 Microwave-assisted freeze dryers
22.1.2.4 Spray freeze drying
22.1.3 Effects on foods and microorganisms
22.2 Freeze concentration
22.2.1 Theory
22.2.2 Equipment
22.2.3 Effects on foods and microorganisms
References
Chapter-23 Part-V---Postprocessing-operations_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
Part V Postprocessing operations
Chapter-23---Packaging_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
23 Packaging
23.1 Theory
23.1.1 Factors affecting the selection of a packaging material
23.1.1.1 Light
23.1.1.2 Temperature
23.1.1.3 Moisture and gases
23.1.1.4 Grease resistance
23.1.1.5 Resistance to microorganisms, insects, animals and soils
23.1.1.6 Mechanical strength
23.1.1.7 Tamper-evident/resistant features
23.1.2 Interactions between packaging and foods
23.2 Types of packaging materials
23.2.1 Textiles and wood
23.2.2 Metal
23.2.2.1 Three-piece cans
23.2.2.2 Two-piece cans
23.2.2.3 Aerosol cans
23.2.2.4 Other metal packaging
23.2.3 Glass
23.2.4 Flexible films
23.2.4.1 Single films
23.2.4.2 Cellulose
23.2.4.3 Ethylene–vinyl acetate or alcohol
23.2.4.4 Polyamides (or nylons)
23.2.4.5 Polybutylene adipate terephthalate
23.2.4.6 Polyethylene (commonly ‘polythene’)
23.2.4.7 Polyethlene naphthalate
23.2.4.8 Polyethylene terephthalate
23.2.4.9 Polypropylene
23.2.4.10 Polystyrene and high-impact polystyrene
23.2.4.11 Polyvinyl chloride
23.2.4.12 Polyvinylidene chloride
23.2.4.13 Coated films
23.2.4.14 Copolymers
23.2.4.15 Laminated films
23.2.4.16 Coextruded films
23.2.5 Rigid and semirigid plastic containers
23.2.6 Paper and board
23.2.6.1 Types of papers
23.2.6.2 Coated papers
23.2.6.3 Paperboard cartons
23.2.6.4 Adhesives
23.2.6.5 Moulded paper pulp containers
23.2.7 Combined packaging systems
23.3 Packaging materials for modified atmosphere packaging
23.3.1 Effect on microorganisms
23.4 Printing
23.4.1 Barcodes and other markings
23.5 Packaging developments
23.5.1 Edible and biodegradable materials
23.5.1.1 Polymers from natural materials
23.5.1.2 Polymers from renewable monomers
23.5.1.3 Polymers produced by microbial fermentation
23.5.1.4 Additives
23.5.1.5 Edible protective superficial layers
23.5.2 Nanotechnology
23.5.3 Active and intelligent packaging
23.5.3.1 Moisture control
23.5.3.2 Gas control
23.5.3.3 Antimicrobial packaging and freshness indicators
23.5.3.4 Temperature monitoring and control
Temperature control
Tracing, tracking and tamper-evident packaging
23.6 Environmental and regulatory considerations
23.6.1 Environmental issues
23.6.1.1 Life cycle analysis
23.6.1.2 Reductions in use of energy and CO2 emissions
23.6.1.3 Reduction in weight of materials
23.6.1.4 Reuse and recycling
Recycling
Composting
Incineration
23.6.2 Regulatory aspects
References
Chapter-24---Filling-and-sealing-of-container_2022_Food-Processing-Technolog
24 Filling and sealing of containers
24.1 Rigid and semirigid containers
24.1.1 Filling
24.1.1.1 Liquid fillers
24.1.1.2 Solids filling
24.1.2 Sealing
24.1.2.1 Glass and plastic containers
24.1.2.2 Metal containers
24.1.2.3 Paperboard cases and cartons
24.2 Flexible containers
24.2.1 Form-fill-seal equipment
24.2.1.1 Vertical form-fill-seal
24.2.1.2 Horizontal form-fill-seal
24.2.2 Tray, pot and carton sealing
24.3 Twist-wrapping
24.4 Shrink-wrapping and stretch-wrapping
24.5 Tamper-evident and tamper-resistant closures
24.6 Labelling
24.7 Checkweighing
24.8 Metal detection
24.8.1 Detecting other contaminants
References
Further reading
Chapter-25---Materials-handling--storage-and-dist_2022_Food-Processing-Techn
25 Materials handling, storage and distribution
25.1 Materials handling
25.1.1 Solids handling methods
25.1.1.1 Conveyors
25.1.1.2 Elevators
25.1.2 Liquid handling methods
25.1.2.1 Pumps
25.1.2.2 Control valves
25.2 Storage
25.2.1 Ambient storage
25.2.1.1 Warehouse operations
25.2.2 Distribution warehousing
25.2.3 Modified and controlled atmosphere storage
25.2.3.1 Modified atmosphere storage/controlled atmosphere storage equipment
References
Further reading
Glossary--acronyms-and-symbols_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
Glossary, acronyms and symbols
Index_2022_Food-Processing-Technology
Index