Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Chapter 1: Introduction to Food Hydrocolloids
1 History of the Term
2 Definition
3 Classification
4 Structures
4.1 Polysaccharides
4.2 Proteins
5 Marketing
6 Legislation and Safety
6.1 Background
6.2 Legislation
6.2.1 International System
6.2.2 European System
6.2.3 US and Japan Systems
6.2.4 China Systems
6.3 Consumer Concerns
7 Functionality and Application
7.1 Structuring Agents
7.1.1 Thickening Agents
7.1.2 Gelling Agents
7.2 Stabilizers
7.2.1 Emulsifier
7.2.2 Foaming Agent
7.3 Delivery Carriers
7.4 Bioactive Ingredients
7.5 Functional Materials
7.5.1 Food-Packaging Materials
7.5.2 Biomedical Materials
7.5.3 Template for Synthesizing Inorganic Nanoparticles
7.5.4 Other Types of Functional Materials
8 The Future Trends
References
Chapter 2: Solution Properties
1 Introduction
2 Thermodynamics of Polymer Solutions
2.1 Flory-Huggins Mean-Field Theory
2.1.1 Lattice Chain Model
2.1.2 Flory-Huggins Interaction Parameter Ο
2.1.3 Gibbs Free Energy and Osmotic Pressure
2.2 Flory-Krigbaum Dilute Theory
3 Chain Model (Teraoka 2002; Rubinstein and Colby 2003; Strobl 1997)
4 Concentration Regimes: Dilute, Semi-dilute, and Concentrated
4.1 Relationship Between Overlap Concentration c and Chain Dimension
4.2 Molecular Weight Mw and Molecular Weight Distribution Mw/Mn
4.3 Intrinsic Viscosity [Ξ·]
4.4 Scaling of Viscosity
5 Chain Conformational Analysis of Polysaccharides in Solution
5.1 Hydrodynamic Radius Rh, Radius of Gyration Rg, and Shape-Factor Ο
5.2 Scaling of [Ξ·], Rg, and A2 with Mw
5.2.1 Mark-Houwink Equation
5.2.2 Scaling of Rg with Mw
5.2.3 Scaling of A2 with Mw
5.2.4 Persistence length (Lp)
5.2.5 Chain Stiffness Parameter B
6 Polysaccharide Liquid Crystal
7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 3: Rheological and Thickening Properties
1 Introduction
2 Elasticity
3 Viscosity: Newtonian Fluid
3.1 Capillary Viscometer
3.2 Falling Ball Viscometer
3.3 Reynolds Number
4 Non-Newtonian Flow: Shear Thinning and Shear Thickening
4.1 Steady Shear Viscosity of Polymer Solutions
4.2 Concentration Dependence of Viscosity
4.3 Salt Effect
4.4 Viscosity of Suspensions
4.5 Extensional Viscosity
5 Viscoelasticity
6 Yield Stress
7 Thixotropy
8 Microrheology
9 Fractional Calculus Bridging the Instrumental Measurement and Sensory Evaluation
9.1 Scott BlairΒ΄s Approach to Understand the Firmness Judged by Humans
9.2 Recent Development of the Application of Fractional Calculus to Liquid Foods
10 Further Developing of Thickening Properties
10.1 Viscosity of Mixed Hydrocolloids
10.2 Molecular Structure and Viscosifying Function
11 Application of Hydrocolloids as a Thickener
11.1 Controlling the Viscosity and Stabilizing of Liquid Foods, Acidified Milk, Sauces
11.2 Rheological Control of Texture by Polysaccharide Thickeners: Noodles/Pasta and Breads
References
Chapter 4: Gelling Properties
1 Introduction
2 What Is a Gel?
3 Classification of Food Gels
3.1 Classification of Food Gels Based on Mechanical Properties
3.2 Classification of Food Gels Based on Molecular Forces
3.3 Classification of Food Gels Based on Molar Mass of Network Elements
3.4 Classification of Food Gels Based on Ingredients
3.5 Classification of Food Gels Based on Origin
3.6 Classification of Food Gels Based on Temperature Dependence of Elastic Modulus
3.7 Classification of Food Gels Based on Optical Properties
3.8 Classification of Food Gels Based on Shape of Network Elements or Crystallinity
3.9 Classification of Food Gels Based on Electric Charges
3.10 Classification Based on Other Criteria
4 Gel-Sol Transition
4.1 Molecular Forces
4.2 Rheological Determination of Sol-Gel Transition
4.3 Spinodal Decomposition or Nucleation and Growth?
4.4 Jamming Transition: Another Molecular Rearrangement Induced by Shear
4.5 Zippering and the Size of Junction Zone
4.6 Critical Molar Mass and Concentration for Gelation
4.7 Rigid Network Chains
4.8 Interaction of Short Chains and Long Chains
4.9 Cation- or Acid-Induced Gelation
5 Characterization Methods
5.1 Gelation Kinetics: Time Dependence of Storage and Loss Moduli Gβ² and G of a Solution at a Constant Temperature and a Frequ...
5.2 Mechanical Spectra: Frequency Dependence of Gβ² and G at a Constant Temperature
5.3 Thermal Scanning Rheology
6 Physical Properties of Gels
6.1 Effect of Gelling Rate on Gel Properties
6.2 Temperature Dependence of Elasticity of Gels
6.3 Molar Mass Dependence of Elastic Modulus
6.4 Molecular Motion (Rearrangement) in Gels
6.5 Chain Release and Erosion of Gels
6.6 Syneresis/Water Holding Capacity (WHC)
6.7 Effect of Sugars, Salt, Acid, and Polyphenols on Rheological Behavior of Gels
7 Particulate Disordered Structure: Globular Protein Gels
8 Mixed Gels
9 Fracture of Food Gels
10 Microgels (Fluid Gels)
11 Cryogels
12 Oleogels
13 Applications of Gelling Agents in Food Industry
References
Chapter 5: Emulsifying Properties
1 Introduction
2 Methods for Creating Emulsion Systems
3 Colloidal Properties
4 Emulsion Stability
5 Stability Mechanisms
5.1 Flocculation
5.2 Coalescence
5.3 Creaming/Sedimentation
5.4 Ostward Ripening
6 Proteins
6.1 Gelatin
6.2 Zein
6.3 Casein
6.4 Whey Protein
6.5 Ξ²-Lactoglobulin
7 Polysaccharides
7.1 Gum Arabic
7.2 Pectin
7.3 Galactomannan
7.4 Microcrystalline Cellulose
7.5 Starch
8 Protein-Polysaccharide Conjugates
9 Applications in Food Industry
10 Future Prospects
References
Chapter 6: Liquid Foaming Properties
1 Formation and Microstructure
2 Instability of Foams
2.1 Drainage
2.2 Coalescence
2.3 Disproportionation
3 Improvement of Foam Ability and Stability
3.1 Physicochemical Characteristics
3.2 Foaming Agents
3.2.1 Protein
Ovomucin
Soy Protein
Whey Protein
Casein
Gelatin
3.2.2 Polysaccharides
Cellulose
Chitin/Chitosan
Starch
3.2.3 Inorganic Particles
4 Application in Food Industry
5 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 7: Tribological and Sensory Properties
1 Introduction
2 Tribology Basics
3 Soft Tribology in Oral Processing
4 Experimental Techniques in Oral Tribology Characterization
5 Case Studies on Tribological Evaluation of Food Hydrocolloids
6 Challenges and Future Prospects
7 Summary
References
Chapter 8: Coating and Film-Forming Properties
1 Introduction
2 Components of Coatings and Films
2.1 Polysaccharides
2.1.1 Starch and Starch Derivatives
2.1.2 Cellulose Derivatives
2.1.3 Chitosan
2.1.4 Polysaccharides Extracted from Seaweed
2.1.5 Pectin
2.1.6 Pullulan
2.2 Proteins
2.2.1 Corn Zein
2.2.2 Wheat Gluten
2.2.3 Soy Protein
2.2.4 Casein and Caseinate
2.2.5 Whey Protein
2.2.6 Gelatin
2.3 Food-Grade Additives
2.3.1 Plasticizers
2.3.2 Polysaccharide Nanofillers
2.3.3 Antimicrobial Additives
3 Preparation Methods
3.1 Preparation of Hydrocolloid-Based Coatings
3.1.1 Spray Coating
3.1.2 Dip Coating
3.1.3 Fluidized-Bed Coating
3.1.4 Pan Coating
3.2 Preparation of Hydrocolloid-Based Films
3.2.1 Wet Method
3.2.2 Dry Method
4 Microstructural and Physicochemical Characterization
4.1 Structural Analysis
4.2 Mechanical Properties
4.3 Barrier Properties
4.3.1 Water Vapor Permeability (WVP)
4.3.2 Gas Permeability
4.4 Thermal Properties
5 Film-Forming Mechanism
5.1 Polysaccharide-Based Films
5.1.1 Formation Mechanism of Solvent Casting Films
5.1.2 Formation Mechanism of Extruded and Compression-Molded Films
5.2 Protein-Based Films
5.2.1 Formation Mechanism of Solvent Casting Films
5.2.2 Formation Mechanism of Extruded and Compression-Molded Films
6 Applications and Recent Developments
7 Future Perspectives
References
Chapter 9: Self-assembling Properties
1 Introduction
2 Physical Aspects of Self-assembly
2.1 Self-assembly
2.2 Forces in Self-assembly
2.2.1 Electrostatic Interaction
2.2.2 Van der Waals Interaction
2.2.3 Hydrogen Bonding
2.2.4 Hydrophobic Interaction
2.2.5 Steric Repulsion
2.2.6 Depletion Attraction
2.2.7 DLVO Theory: A Case of the Combination of van der Waals Attraction and Electrostatic Repulsion
2.3 Self-assembly of Food Proteins and Polysaccharides
2.3.1 Protein Self-assembly
2.3.2 Polysaccharide Self-assembly
3 Self-assembled Nanostructures
3.1 Protein Self-assembled Nanostructures
3.1.1 Natural Self-assembled Nanostructure-Casein Micelles
3.1.2 Amorphous Aggregates
3.1.3 Nanofilaments
3.1.4 Nanotubes
3.2 Polysaccharide Self-assembled Nanostructures
3.3 Protein-co-polysaccharide Self-assembled Nanostructures
4 Tech-functionalities
5 Disassembly and Reassembly in the Gastrointestinal Tract
6 Summary, Challenges, and Future Scope
References
Chapter 10: Flavour Delivery
1 Introduction
1.1 Flavour and Flavourings
1.2 Flavour Delivery and Flavour Delivery Systems
1.3 Flavour Delivery Technologies
2 Functionality of Hydrocolloids in Dry Flavour Delivery Systems
2.1 General Concepts of Matrix Encapsulation
2.1.1 Emulsifiers
2.1.2 Matrix Materials
2.2 Use of Food Hydrocolloids to Produce Dry Flavour Delivery Systems
2.2.1 Extrusion
Ram Extrusion
Screw or Twin-screw Extrusion
2.2.2 Spray Drying
2.2.3 Freeze Drying and Vacuum Drying
2.2.4 Fluidized-Bed Technologies
2.2.5 Coacervation
2.2.6 Other Technologies to Produce Insoluble Capsules
3 Functionality of Food Hydrocolloids in Beverage Emulsions
3.1 General Concepts in the Development of Beverage Emulsions
3.2 Hydrocolloids Used in Beverage Emulsions
3.2.1 Hydrocolloids as Emulsifiers
Acacia gum
Ghatti gum
Octenyl Succinate Modified Starch
Sugar Beet Pectin
Other Food Hydrocolloid Emulsifiers
3.2.2 Hydrocolloids as Emulsion Stabilizers
4 Flavour Release
4.1 Flavour Release from Delivery Systems
4.2 Flavour Release from Food
5 Summary and Outlook
References
Chapter 11: Encapsulation and Targeted Release
1 Introduction
2 The Encapsulation Technology Developed for Sensitive Bioactive Compounds
2.1 Factors Influencing the Stability and Bioavailability of Bioactive Compounds
2.2 The Food Delivery Systems Classified by Structure
2.2.1 Complex Coacervates
2.2.2 Pickering Emulsion Delivery Systems
2.2.3 Core-Shell Microcapsules Delivery System Prepared by Layer-by-Layer Technique
2.2.4 Cross-Linked Biopolymer Gels
2.2.5 Self-Assembled Delivery Systems
3 The Different Delivery Systems Classified by Function
3.1 Oral-Responsive Delivery Systems
3.2 pH-Responsive Delivery Systems
3.3 Enzymatically-Responsive Delivery Systems
3.4 Biorecognition by Specific Receptors Delivery System
3.5 Mucus-Penetrating and Mucoadhesive Delivery Systems
4 The Mechanisms of Cellular Uptake of Carriers
5 The Evaluation of Carriers by Digestion and Absorption Models
6 The Application of Carriers in Different Types of Food
7 Future Prospects
References
Chapter 12: Replacement of Fat or Starch
1 Introduction
2 Challenges for Fat or Starch Replacement
2.1 Challenges for Fat Replacement
2.1.1 Flavour Concerns
Flavour Distribution and Release
Flavour-Ingredients Interactions
2.1.2 Texture Concerns
2.2 Challenges for Starch Replacement
2.2.1 Pasting and Gel Texture Properties Control
2.2.2 Interactions Control
3 Strategies for Fat Replacement
3.1 Food Formulation Optimization
3.1.1 Protein-Based Fat Replacers
3.1.2 Carbohydrate-Based Fat Replacers
Digestible Starch
Non-digestible Cellulose Derivatives
Non-digestible Inulin
Other Non-digestible Gums
3.1.3 Combination Systems
Protein-Polysaccharide Combination
Polysaccharide-Polysaccharide Combination
3.1.4 Lipid-Based Fat Replacers
Emulsions
Structured Oils
3.2 Food Structure Design
4 Strategies for Starch Replacement
4.1 Non-starch Polysaccharides
4.2 Hydrocolloid Microgels
5 Commercially Available Fat Replacers
6 Future Perspective
References
Chapter 13: Structuring for Elderly Foods
1 Introduction
2 Use of Polysaccharides as a Texture Modifier in Elderly Foods
3 Usefulness of Xanthan Gum as Dysphagia Thickener
4 Working Mechanical Criteria for Elderly Foods in Japan and Comparison to the Global Standards
5 Mechanical Simulation of Palatal Reduction
6 Progress of In Vivo Physiological Tests as Advanced Texture Assessment
6.1 Tongue Pressure Measurement
6.2 Electromyography
7 Release Control of Flavor and the Effects on Human Eating Behavior
8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 14: Bioactivities
1 Introduction
2 Bioactivities
2.1 Anti-Tumor
2.2 Immunoregulation
2.3 Anti-Oxidation
2.4 Antimicrobial
2.5 Hypoglycemic
2.6 Hypolipidemic
2.7 Other Activities
3 Structure Features
4 Application
5 Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
Chapter 15: Dietary Fibers: Structural Aspects and Nutritional Implications
1 Definition, Structure, and Analysis of Dietary Fiber
1.1 What Is Dietary Fiber?
1.2 Structure and Physicochemical Properties of Dietary Fibers
2 Roles of Dietary Fiber in the Digestive Tract
2.1 The Oral and Gastric Processing of Dietary Fiber
2.2 Small Intestine Digestion and Dietary Fiber
3 Gut Microbial Fermentation of Dietary Fibers in the Colon
3.1 Fermentation Rate
3.2 Short-Chain Fatty Acids Production and Related Gut Bacteria Growth
4 The Role of Dietary Fiber in Health and Disease
4.1 Constipation
4.2 Irritable Bowel Syndrome
4.3 Colorectal Cancer
4.4 Inflammatory Bowel Disease
4.5 Obesity and Diabetes
5 Conclusions and Future Direction
References