Food Additives Data Book

✍ Scribed by Jim Smith (editor), Lily Hong-Shum (editor)

• Publisher: Blackwell Pub
• Year: 2011
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 338
• Edition: 2
• Category: Library

✦ Synopsis

The use of additives in food is a dynamic one, as consumers demand fewer additives in foods and as governments review the list of additives approved and their permitted levels. Scientists also refine the knowledge of the risk assessment process as well as improve analytical methods and the use of alternative additives, processes or ingredients. Since the first edition of the Food Additives Databook was published, there have been numerous changes due to these developments and some additives are no longer permitted, some have new permitted levels of use and new additives have been assessed and approved.

The revised second edition of this major reference work covers all the "must-have" technical data on food additives. Compiled by food industry experts with a proven track record of producing high quality reference work, this volume is the definitive resource for technologists in small, medium and large companies, and for workers in research, government and academic institutions.

Coverage is of Preservatives, Enzymes, Gases, Nutritive additives, Emulsifiers, Flour additives, Acidulants, Sequestrants, Antioxidants, Flavour enhancers, Colour, Sweeteners, Polysaccharides, Solvents.

Entries include information on: Function and Applications, Safety issues, International legal issues, Alternatives, Synonyms, Molecular Formula and mass, Alternative forms, Appearance, Boiling, melting, and flash points, density, purity, water content, solubility, Synergists, Antagonists, and more with full and easy-to-follow-up references.

Reviews of the first edition:

"Additives have their advantages for the food industry in order to provide safe and convenient food products. It is therefore essential that as much information as possible is available to allow an informed decision on the selection of an additive for a particular purpose. This data book provides such information - consisting of over 1000 pages and covering around 350 additives.

This data book does provide a vast amount of information; it is what it claims to be!

Overall, this is a very useful publication and a good reference book for anyone working in the food and dairy industry."
&;International Journal of Dairy Technology, Volume 59 Issue 2, May 2006

"This book is the best I have ever seen ... a clear winner over all other food additive books .... a superb edition."
&;SAAFOST (South African Association for Food Science and Technology)

✦ Table of Contents

Chemistry of Food Additives and Preservatives
Contents
Preface
Introduction
List of Abbreviations
1 Antioxidants and Radical Scavengers
1.1 CHEMISTRY OF FREE RADICALS AND ANTIOXIDANTS
1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 The formation of ROS in living systems
1.1.3 Negative effects of oxidants in food processes and to food consumers
1.1.4 Reactive oxygen/nitrogen species and aging
1.2 TYPES OF ANTIOXIDANTS
1.2.1 Natural antioxidants of plant origin
1.2.2 Phenolic non-flavonoid antioxidant compounds from natural sources
1.2.3 Phenolic flavonoid antioxidant compounds from natural sources
1.2.4 Acidic functional groups responsible for antioxidant activity
1.3 EFFICACY OF DIFFERENT ANTIOXIDANTS
1.4 ACTION MECHANISMS OF ANTIOXIDANTS
1.4.1 Quenching
1.4.2 Hydrogen transfer
1.4.3 Charge transfer
1.4.4 Bond-breaking
1.5 STRUCTURE–ACTIVITY RELATIONSHIP OF ANTIOXIDANTS
1.5.1 Polyphenol antioxidants
1.5.2 Flavonoid antioxidants
1.5.3 Mechanism of reactions of flavonoid antioxidants with radical scavengers
1.6 FACTORS AFFECTING ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY
1.6.1 Temperature
1.6.2 Activation energy and redox potential
1.6.3 Stability
1.7 QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF DIETARY ANTIOXIDANTS
1.7.1 Total radical trapping antioxidant parameter/oxygen radical absorbing capacity
1.7.2 Hydroxyl radical antioxidant capacity (HORAC)
1.7.3 DPPH
1.7.4 Ferric reducing antioxidant power
1.7.5 Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC)
1.7.6 ABTS
1.7.7 Copper (Cu2+) reduction
1.7.8 Photochemiluminescence (PCL)
1.7.9 Chemiluminescence
1.7.10 Fluorometric
1.7.11 N, N-dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine
1.7.12 Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
1.7.13 Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS)
1.7.14 Brigg-Rauscher
1.7.15 Electrochemical
1.7.16 β-carotene bleaching
1.7.17 Comparison of different assays for dietary total antioxidant capacity
1.8 HOW SAFE ARE FOOD ANTIOXIDANTS?
1.8.1 Electrochemical
1.8.2 High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
1.8.3 Capillary electrophoresis
1.8.4 Mass spectrometry
1.8.5 Spectroscopy
1.9 SUMMARY
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
2 Emulsifiers
2.1 MECHANISMS OF FOOD EMULSIFIERS
2.2 THE ROLE OF EMULSIFIERS IN FOODS
2.2.1 Emulsification
2.2.2 Starch complexing
2.2.3 Foam stabilisation and aeration
2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF EMULSIFIERS
2.3.1 Hydrophilic-lipophilic balance
2.3.2 Ionic charge
2.3.3 Crystal stability
2.4 TYPES OF FOOD EMULSIFIERS
2.4.1 Main classification
2.4.2 Low-molecular-weight glyceride emulsifiers
2.4.3 High-molecular-weight (polymeric) emulsifiers
2.4.4 Natural emulsifiers
2.5 QUALITY AND ANALYSIS OF FOOD EMULSIFIERS
2.5.1 Peroxide value
2.5.2 Saponification value
2.5.3 Hydroxyl value
2.5.4 Acid number
2.5.5 Iodine value
2.5.6 Chromatography
2.6 FOODS CONTAINING EMULSIFIERS
2.6.1 Mayonnaise
2.6.2 Margarine
2.6.3 Butter
2.6.4 Ice-creams
2.6.5 Dairy emulsifiers and emulsions
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
3 Stabilisers, Gums, Thickeners and Gelling Agents as Food Additives
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO STABILISERS, THICKENERS AND GELLING AGENTS
3.2 POLYSACCHARIDES
3.2.1 Non-ionic (neutral) polysaccharide stabilisers
3.2.2 Anionic polysaccharide stabilisers
3.2.3 Cationic polysaccharide food stabilisers
3.3 PROTEIN-BASED FOOD STABILISERS
3.4 QUALITY CONTROL OF FOOD STABILISERS AND THICKENERS
3.5 ANALYTICAL METHODS
3.5.1 Acid hydrolysis and methanolysis
3.5.2 Alternative techniques
3.5.3 Protein-binding assays
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
4 Sweeteners
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO SWEETENERS
4.2 PROPERTIES OF SWEETENERS
4.2.1 Structure–activity relationship
4.2.2 Structure–taste relationship
4.2.3 Mechanism of sweetness
4.2.4 Sensory properties
4.3 INTENSE SWEETENERS IN FOODS
4.3.1 Synthetic intense sweeteners
4.3.2 Natural intense sweeteners
4.4 BULK FOOD SWEETENERS
4.4.1 Refined sugars
4.4.2 Sugar replacements
4.4.3 Alternative classification
4.5 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL
4.5.1 Methods of quality assessment
4.5.2 Toxicity
4.5.3 Link to weight gain and obesity
4.6 ANALYTICAL METHODS
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
5 Fragrances, Flavouring Agents and Enhancers
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO FLAVOURS AND FLAVOURING AGENTS
5.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD FLAVOURINGS
5.2.1 Mode of formation
5.2.2 Source of formation
5.2.3 Use of flavouring agents
5.2.4 Functional group responsible for flavour
5.3 CHEMISTRY OF FOOD FLAVOURINGS
5.3.1 Maillard browning (non-enzymatic)
5.3.2 Enzymatic browning phenomena
5.3.3 Caramelisation reactions
5.3.4 Strecker reactions
5.3.5 Smoke flavourings
5.3.6 Summary of flavour precursor mechanisms
5.4 QUALITY CONTROL OF FLAVOUR COMPOUNDS
5.4.1 How safe are flavour compounds, enhancers and precursors?
5.5 ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF FOOD FLAVOURINGS
5.5.1 Gas chromatography and olfactory method
5.5.2 Odour activity values
5.5.3 Internal standards
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
6 Food Acids and Acidity Regulators
6.1 WHAT ARE FOOD ACIDS AND ACID REGULATORS?
6.2 TYPES OF FOOD ACIDS
6.2.1 Citric acid
6.2.2 Lactic acid
6.2.3 Acetic acid
6.2.4 Malic acid
6.2.5 Fumaric acid
6.2.6 Tartaric acid
6.2.7 Phosphoric acid
6.3 USES OF FOOD ACIDS
6.3.1 As acidity regulators
6.3.2 As preservatives
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
7 Food Colour and Colour Retention Agents
7.1 WHY ADD COLOURANTS TO FOODS?
7.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD COLOURANTS
7.2.1 Natural food colourants
7.2.2 Nature-identical food colourants
7.2.3 Synthetic/artificial food colourants
7.2.4 Classification based on the nature of chromophores
7.3 OVERVIEW OF COLOURANTS
7.3.1 β-carotene
7.3.2 Cochineal extract and carmine
7.3.3 Turmeric
7.3.4 Canthaxanthin
7.3.5 Anthocyanins
7.3.6 Caramel
7.3.7 Titanium dioxide (TiO2)
7.3.8 Paprika and paprika oleoresin
7.4 CHEMISTRY OF FOOD COLOURANTS
7.4.1 Stabilisation
7.4.2 Mechanisms
7.4.3 Measurement of colour and physico-chemical parameters
7.5 EXTRACTION FROM NATURAL SOURCES
7.5.1 Anthocyanin pigments
7.5.2 Azo-dye pigments
7.6 QUALITY ASSURANCE OF FOOD COLOURANTS
7.6.1 Quality measurements
7.6.2 Safety of food colourants
7.7 ANALYTICAL METHODS
REFERENCES
8 Flour Treatment/Improving Agents
8.1 WHAT ARE FLOUR TREATMENT/IMPROVING AGENTS?
8.2 FLOUR MATURING AGENTS
8.2.1 Chemistry of azodicarbonamide
8.2.2 Formamidine disulphide hydrochloride
8.2.3 Potassium bromate
8.3 FLOUR BLEACHING AGENTS
8.3.1 Flour lipoxygenases
8.3.2 L-threo-ascorbic acid
8.3.3 Benzoyl acid
8.3.4 Stearyl tartrate
8.3.5 Magnesium-DL-lactate
8.3.6 Citric acid esters of mono- and di-glycerides
8.4 FLOUR PROCESSING AGENTS
REFERENCES
9 Anticaking Agents
9.1 THE CAKING PHENOMENA
9.2 MECHANISMS OF CAKING
9.2.1 Crystalline powder caking mechanisms
9.2.2 Amorphous materials caking mechanisms
9.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ANTICAKING AGENTS
9.4 ANTICAKING AGENTS IN USE
9.4.1 The need for anticaking agents
9.4.2 Mode of action of anticaking agents
9.4.3 Foodstuffs which contain anticaking agents
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
10 Humectants
10.1 HUMECTANTS AND MOISTURE CONTROL
10.2 CLASSIFICATION OF HUMECTANTS
10.2.1 Tartrate series
10.2.2 Glycerol or glycerin humectants
10.2.3 Invert sugars
10.2.4 Sorbitol/glucitol
REFERENCES
11 Antifoaming Agents
11.1 SOURCES OF FOAM IN FOOD PROCESSING
11.2 PROPERTIES OF ANTIFOAMING AGENTS
11.3 MECHANISMS OF ANTIFOAMING AND FOAM DESTABILISATION
11.4 SYNTHETIC DEFOAMERS
11.4.1 Silicone-based defoamers
11.4.2 Oil-based defoamers
11.4.3 Silicone surfactant defoamers
11.4.4 Other chemical defoamers
11.5 NATURAL DEFOAMERS
REFERENCES
12 Minerals and Mineral Salts
12.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS AND MINERAL SALTS
12.1.1 Minerals
12.1.2 Mineral salts
12.2 INORGANIC MINERAL SALTS
12.2.1 Sodium chloride (table salt)
12.2.2 Phosphate salts
12.2.3 Salts of magnesium
12.2.4 Salts of ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid (EDTA)
12.3 ORGANIC MINERAL SALTS
12.3.1 Magnesium
12.3.2 Citrate
12.3.3 Fumaric acid
12.3.4 Tartaric acid
12.3.5 Malic acid
12.3.6 Ascorbic acid
12.3.7 Other organic salts
REFERENCES
13 Dietary Supplements
13.1 INTRODUCTION TO DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS
13.1.1 Botanical and herbal dietary supplements
13.1.2 Vitamin dietary supplements
13.2 CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINS
13.2.1 By class
13.2.2 By solubility
13.3 VITAMIN A (RETINOLS)
13.3.1 Structure-activity relationship
13.3.2 Functions and mechanisms of vitamin A
13.3.3 Relationship of vitamin A to other dietary nutrients
13.3.4 Assessment of vitamin A status in individuals
13.3.5 Chemistry of vitamin A and carotenoids
13.3.6 Conversion of β-carotene to retinol
13.3.7 Toxicity of vitamin A
13.4 VITAMIN D (CALCIFEROL)
13.4.1 The epidermal synthesis of vitamin D
13.4.2 Vitamin D supplementation in diets
13.4.3 Commercial production of vitamin D
13.4.4 Measuring vitamin D in foods
13.5 VITAMIN E
13.5.1 Role of vitamin E
13.5.2 Plant sources
13.5.3 Industrial production of vitamin E
13.6 VITAMIN K
13.6.1 Vitamin K structures
13.6.2 Dietary sources of vitamin K
13.6.3 Methods of assessment
13.7 VITAMIN B
13.7.1 Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
13.7.2 Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
13.7.3 Vitamin B3 (niacin, nicotinic acid or nicotinamide)
13.7.4 Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid)
13.7.5 Vitamin B6 (pyridoxal phosphate or pyridoxal 5’-phosphate)
13.7.6 Vitamin B7 or vitamin H (biotin)
13.7.7 Vitamin B9 (folic acid)
13.7.8 Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamine)
13.8 VITAMIN C (L-ASCORBIC ACID)
13.9 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
14 Glazing Agents
14.1 INTRODUCTION TO GLAZING AGENTS
14.2 MINERAL HYDROCARBON GLAZES
14.2.1 Direct application of MHC
14.2.2 Indirect application of MHC
14.3 CHEMISTRY OF MHCs
14.3.1 Food-grade paraffin waxes
14.3.2 Microcrystalline waxes
14.3.3 Natural wax glazes
14.3.4 Commercial/synthetic food glazes
14.4 CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
15 Preservatives
15.1 PRESERVATIVES: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
15.1.1 Sequestrants as food additives
15.1.2 Food preservation processes
15.2 NATURAL FOOD PRESERVATIVES
15.2.1 Plant antimicrobial extracts
15.2.2 Natural food preservatives derived from insects
15.2.3 Microbial enzymatic-derived preservative agents (lytic enzymes)
15.2.4 Sulphur dioxide
15.2.5 Chitosan conjugates
15.3 TRADITIONAL FOOD PRESERVATION METHODS
15.3.1 Wood smoke
15.3.2 Salting
15.3.3 Canning
15.3.4 Drying
15.3.5 Chilling and freezing
15.3.6 Pickling
15.3.7 Addition of sugars
15.4 ARTIFICIAL PRESERVATIVE AGENTS
15.4.1 Weak organic acids
15.4.2 Caffeine
15.4.3 Parabens
15.5 MODERN FOOD PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES
15.5.1 Non-thermal inactivation
15.5.2 Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
15.5.3 Biological food preservation technology
15.5.4 Bacteriocinogenic cultures for food preservation
15.6 SAFETY CONCERNS OF FOOD PRESERVATIVES
15.7 ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF PRESERVATIVE RESIDUES
15.8 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
16 Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods
16.1 WHAT ARE NUTRACEUTICALS?
16.2 CLASSIFICATION OF NUTRACEUTICALS
16.2.1 Natural nutraceuticals
16.2.2 Non-natural nutraceuticals
16.3 MECHANISMS OF ACTION
16.3.1 Obsessive compulsive disorder
16.3.2 Mental health problems
16.3.3 Obesity and diabetes mellitus
16.3.4 Cardiovascular diseases
16.3.5 Cancer
16.3.6 Brain development
16.3.7 Age-related diseases
16.3.8 Viral diseases
16.3.9 Anti-gastrointestinal ulcers and anti-acids
16.3.10 Liver cell protection
16.3.11 Blood coagulation and thrombotic diseases
16.3.12 Blood cholesterol cases
16.4 CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
17 Nutritional Genomics: Nutrigenetics and Nutrigenomics
17.1 NUTRITION AND GENE EXPRESSION
17.1.1 Nutrigenetics
17.1.2 Influence of diet on gene regulation and expression
17.2 NUTRIGENETIC AREAS OF APPLICATION
17.2.1 Body weight
17.2.2 Carcinogenesis
17.2.3 Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)
17.3 ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR NUTRIGENETICAL FOOD FUNCTIONS
17.3.1 Northern blot
17.3.2 Real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR)
17.3.3 DNA microarray
17.3.4 Mass spectrometry
17.3.5 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
17.4 CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
18 Probiotic Foods and Dietary Supplements
18.1 MICROBIAL GUT FLORA ACTIVITY
18.2 PROBIOTICS AND NUTRITION
18.3 PROBIOTICS AND HEALTH
18.3.1 Colon cancer
18.3.2 Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and colorectal cancer (CRC)
18.3.3 Lowering cholesterol
18.3.4 Lactose maldigestion
18.3.5 Diarrhoea
18.3.6 General mode of action of probiotics
18.4 SAFETY AND STABILITY OF PROBIOTICS
18.5 SUITABLE DIETARY CARRIERS FOR PROBIOTICS
18.5.1 Production and evaluation
18.5.2 Fermented dietary products for HIV cases
18.5.3 For diarrhoea cases
18.6 ASSESSMENT OF PROBIOTICS IN FOODSTUFFS AND SUPPLEMENTS
18.6.1 Molecular and PCR-based methods
18.6.2 DNA fingerprinting-based methods
18.7 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
19 Prebiotics
19.1 PREBIOTICS AND HEALTH
19.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE ACTIVITY AND EFFECTIVENESS OF PREBIOTICS
19.3 TYPES OF OLIGOSACCHARIDES
19.3.1 Fructo-oligosaccharides
19.3.2 Gluco-oligosaccharides
19.3.3 Isomalto-oligosaccharides
19.3.4 Inulin fibre
19.4 QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF PREBIOTICS
19.5 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
20 Synbiotics
20.1 SYNBIOTIC FOODS AND HEALTH
20.2 HEALTH BENEFITS OF SYNBIOTICS
20.2.1 Disease prevention
20.2.2 Anti-tumour activity
20.2.3 Cancer therapy
20.2.4 Boosting of immune system
20.3 MECHANISM OF ACTION OF SYNBIOTICS
20.4 THE FUTURE OF SYNBOTIC FOODS
REFERENCES
21 Microencapsulation and Bioencapsulation
21.1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROENCAPSULATION AND BIOENCAPSULATION
21.2 COMMONLY USED FOOD-GRADE MICROCAPSULES
21.2.1 Alginates and alginate derivatives
21.2.2 Chitosan
21.2.3 Xanthan–gelan blends
21.2.4 Starch materials
21.2.5 Kappa-carrageenan and other carrageenan derivatives
21.2.6 Gelatin and its blends
21.2.7 Cellulose acetate phthalate
21.3 METHODS OF FOOD MICROENCAPSULATION
21.3.1 Physico-chemical
21.3.2 Chemical
21.3.3 Physico-mechanical
21.4 MICROENCAPSULATION FOR FOOD COLOURANTS
21.5 BIOENCAPSULATION FOR PROBIOTICS
21.6 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
General Conclusions
Index