Front Matter......Page 1
Appendices......Page 0
Acknowledgment......Page 3
Preface......Page 4
Table of Contents......Page 5
1. Introduction......Page 15
References......Page 16
2.1 Introduction......Page 17
2.3.1 Alumina Trihydrate (Aluminum Trihydroxide, ATH; Mineral Name: Bauxite)......Page 18
2.3.3 ATH Modifications......Page 19
2.3.5 Magnesium Hydroxide (Magnesium Dihydroxide, MDH)......Page 20
2.3.7 Other Synergistic MDH Combinations......Page 21
2.4 Halogenated Flame Retardants......Page 22
2.4.1 Chloroparaffins......Page 23
2.4.2 Dechlorane Plusยฎ......Page 24
2.4.3.2 Tetradecabromodiphenoxybenzene (Saytex 120)......Page 25
2.4.3.5 Tetrabromobisphenol A bis(2,3-Dibromopropyl Ether)......Page 26
2.4.3.7 Ethylenebis(Tetrabromophthalimide)......Page 27
2.4.3.11 Pentabromobenzyl Acrylate Monomer......Page 28
2.5 Antimony Trioxide......Page 29
2.6.1.1 Ammonium Polyphosphate......Page 30
2.6.1.3 Melamine Phosphates......Page 31
2.6.1.6 Other Intumescent Systems......Page 32
2.7 Expandable Graphite......Page 33
2.9 Nanocomposites......Page 34
2.12 Silicone Synergists......Page 35
2.15.1 Wire and Cable Insulation......Page 36
2.16.1 General Comments......Page 37
2.16.2 Diene Elastomers......Page 38
2.16.3 Chloroparaffins in Elastomers......Page 39
2.16.5 Bromine Compounds in Elastomers......Page 40
2.16.7 ATH and MDH in Elastomers; Low Smoke Formulations......Page 41
2.16.8 Clays in Elastomers......Page 42
2.16.10 Chlorinated and Chlorosulfonated Polyethylenes......Page 43
References......Page 44
3.2 General Comments on the Fire Properties of Styrenic Polymers......Page 49
3.4.1 Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD)......Page 50
3.4.3 Dibromoethyldibromocyclohexane......Page 51
3.4.6 Synergists with Brominated Additives in Polystyrene Foam......Page 52
3.4.8 Non-Bromine Systems in Polystyrene Foam......Page 53
3.4.9 The Recommended Fire-Safe Use of Extruded Polystyrene Insulation......Page 54
3.5.1.1 Decabromodiphenyl Oxide (Ether) in HIPS......Page 55
3.5.1.3 2,4,6-Tris(2,4,6-Tribromophenoxy)-1,3,5-Triazine (ICL-IP's FR-245)......Page 56
3.5.1.7 Tetrabromobisphenol A Bis(2,3-Dibromopropyl Ether)......Page 58
3.5.1.9 Comparison of Typical Formulations of Brominated Flame Retardants in HIPS......Page 59
3.5.1.11 The Effect of Brominated Flame Retardants and Antimony Oxide on Mechanical Properties of HIPS......Page 60
3.6 Flame Retarded Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Copolymers (ABS)......Page 61
3.6.1 Brominated Flame Retardants Used in ABS......Page 62
3.6.2 Chlorinated Additives for ABS or HIPS......Page 64
3.8 Mechanistic Considerations as a Guide for Flame Retardation of Styrenics......Page 65
3.8.2 The Smoke Problem with Styrenics......Page 66
3.9 Summary and Future Trends......Page 67
References......Page 68
4.1 Introduction......Page 72
4.2 Plasticized (Flexible) PVC......Page 73
4.3 Antimony Oxide and Related Products......Page 74
4.4 Halogenated Phthalate Plasticizers......Page 75
4.5 Chlorinated Paraffins......Page 76
4.6.1 Alumina Trihydrate (Aluminum Hydroxide, ATH)......Page 77
4.6.2 Magnesium Hydroxide and Related Magnesium Minerals......Page 79
4.6.3 Molybdenum Compounds......Page 80
4.6.5 Zinc Borates; Barium Borate......Page 81
4.6.7 Zinc Sulfide......Page 82
4.7 Low Flammability Plasticizers: Phosphate Esters......Page 83
4.7.1 Triaryl Phosphates......Page 84
4.7.4 Comparison of Various Combinations of Plasticizers and other Additives......Page 86
4.8.1 Calendered Vinyls......Page 87
4.8.2 Plenum Wire and Cable......Page 89
4.9 PVC from a Safety and Environmental Point of View......Page 92
References......Page 94
5.1 Introduction......Page 97
5.2.1 Chlorinated Additives......Page 98
5.2.2.2 Bromoaromatic Alternatives to Brominated Diphenyl Ethers......Page 100
5.2.2.4 Brominated Polystyrenes as Flame Retardant Additives......Page 101
5.3 Melamine Cyanurate......Page 103
5.3.1 Other Melamine Additives......Page 106
5.4.2 Alumina Monohydrate......Page 107
5.5.1 Red Phosphorus......Page 108
5.5.2 Aluminum Dialkylphosphinates......Page 109
5.6 Drip Retarding Additives......Page 110
5.8 Textile Fiber Applications......Page 111
References......Page 112
6.2.1 Textile Fiber Flame Retardance by Melt-Spinning Additives......Page 117
6.2.2 Dihydrooxaphosphaphenanthrene Reactant in Polyethylene Terephthalate......Page 118
6.2.5 Bromine-Containing FR in PET Fibers......Page 120
6.2.6 Flame Retarding Polyethylene Terephthalate Fabric by a Thermosol Finishing Process......Page 121
6.3.1 Polymeric and Oligomeric Brominated Flame Retardants in PBT......Page 122
6.3.4 Non-Halogen Flame Retardant Polybutylene Terephthalate - Phosphorus Flame Retardant Additives......Page 125
6.3.5 Non-Halogen Flame Retardant Polybutylene Terephthalate - Phosphinate Salt Additives......Page 126
6.3.6 Non-Halogen Flame Retardant Polybutylene Terephthalate - Aromatic Phosphate Additives......Page 127
References......Page 128
7.1 Introduction......Page 132
7.2 Bromine-Based Flame Retardancy......Page 133
7.3 Anti-Dripping Additives......Page 134
7.4.1 Phosphates......Page 135
7.4.3 Sulfonate Salts......Page 136
7.5 Polycarbonate-ABS Blends......Page 139
7.5.2 Phosphorus Compounds in Blends of Polycarbonates and ABS......Page 140
7.5.4 Other Flame Retardant Systems for PC-ABS Blends......Page 143
7.7 Other Polycarbonate Copolymers and Blends......Page 144
7.10 Conclusions......Page 145
References......Page 146
8.2 Halogen-Containing Unsaturated Resins......Page 152
8.3 Vinyl Ester Resins......Page 154
8.4 Hydrated Mineral Fillers......Page 155
8.5.1 Low Smoke Unsaturated Acrylate Oligourethane Resins with Alumina Trihydrate......Page 156
8.6 Phosphorus-Containing Flame Retardant Polyester Resins......Page 157
8.6.2 Phosphorus-Melamine Combinations in Unsaturated Polyester Resins......Page 158
8.8 Phenolic Composites......Page 159
References......Page 160
9.2 Commercial Flame Retardance of Rigid Foams......Page 164
9.2.1 Additives in Rigid Foams......Page 165
9.2.2 Reactive Flame Retardants - General Comments......Page 167
9.2.4 Impact of Blowing Agent on Flame Retardancy of Rigid Foams......Page 168
9.2.5 Brominated Alcohols as Reactive Flame Retardants......Page 170
9.2.7 Additives in Isocyanurate Foams......Page 171
9.3 Flame Retardance of Flexible Foams......Page 172
9.3.1 Additives in Flexible Foams......Page 173
9.3.2 Additives in Flexible Foams - Volatility Considerations ("Fogging")......Page 174
9.3.4 Overcoming the "Scorch" Problem in Flexible Foams......Page 175
9.3.6 Polyols Favorable to Flame Retardancy in Flexible Foams......Page 177
9.3.7 Melamine in Flexible Foams......Page 178
9.3.9 Silicone Surfactants Favorable to Flame Retardancy in Flexible Foams......Page 180
9.3.11 Interaction of Upholstery Fabric on the Flammability of Flexible Foam in Furniture......Page 181
9.3.15 Basic Studies on Flammability and Flame Retardant Action in Flexible Foams......Page 182
9.4 Polyurethane Elastomers and Cast Resins......Page 183
9.6 Urethane Coatings and Sealants......Page 184
10.2 Electrical and Electronic Applications......Page 190
10.3 Brominated Flame Retardants in PWB......Page 191
10.3.1 A Challenge to Tetrabromobisphenol A......Page 192
10.4.1 High Loadings of Metal Hydroxide Fillers......Page 194
10.4.2 Red Phosphorus Plus ATH......Page 195
10.4.3 Other Additive Phosphorus Compounds in PWB......Page 196
10.4.4 Reactive Phosphorus Compounds in Epoxy Resins......Page 197
10.5 Resin Design for Flame Retardancy......Page 200
10.7 Flame Retarding Epoxy Coatings......Page 201
References......Page 203
11.1.1 A Brief Review of the History of Flame Retardant Textiles......Page 208
11.1.4 Detrimental Effects on Flammability......Page 209
11.2.1 Non-Durable Treatments of Cotton and other Cellulosics......Page 210
11.2.3 Semi-Durable Treatments for Cotton......Page 211
11.2.4 Further Development of the Phosphorylation of Cellulose......Page 212
11.3 Backcoating with Phosphorus-Containing Formulations......Page 213
11.4.1 THPX Finishes for Cellulosics and Blends......Page 214
11.4.3 New Products Using the Proban Treatment......Page 216
11.4.5 Pyrovatexยฎ CP and Similar Competitive Products......Page 217
11.4.6 Other Durable Finishes for Cotton......Page 218
11.5 Thermosol Flame Retardant Treatment of Polyester Fabric......Page 219
11.6 Nylon Topical Finish......Page 220
11.8 Processes with Broad Application for Synthetics and Blends......Page 221
11.10 Backcoating of Carpets; Metal Hydroxide Fillers......Page 222
11.12 Melt Processable Additives in Polyester Fibers......Page 223
11.13.2 Polyester Fibers......Page 224
11.13.3 Polyamides; Aramids......Page 225
11.13.7 Basalt Fibers......Page 226
11.13.11 Oxidized Polyacrylonitrile Fibers (Pyron)......Page 227
11.14.2 Flame Retardant Facing......Page 228
11.14.4 Batting and Nonwoven Fabrics from Combinations of Flame Retardant Fibers......Page 229
11.14.6 Mattress Construction......Page 230
References......Page 231
12.1 Introduction......Page 237
12.2 The UL 94 Vertical Flame Test......Page 238
12.2.2 Variants of the UL 94 to Obtain More Quantitative Data......Page 239
12.3.1 Oxygen Index - Correlation to other Tests and Use in R&D......Page 240
12.4 Glow Wire Test......Page 241
12.6 Cone Calorimeter......Page 242
12.6.3 Cone Calorimeter Correlation to other Fire Tests......Page 243
12.9 Federal Apparel Test (16 CFR Part 1610)......Page 244
12.12.2 Tests Specific to Upholstered Furniture: California Technical Bulletin 117......Page 245
12.14 French Epiradiateur Test (NF P 92-501) for Building Materials......Page 246
12.17 Large Scale Tests......Page 247
References......Page 248
13.2 Heat Sinks (Heat Capacity Effects and Endotherms)......Page 251
13.4 Barrier Effects......Page 252
13.5 Flame Inhibition Effects......Page 255
13.6 Char Formation......Page 256
13.8 Intumescence and Formation of a Foam Insulation Barrier......Page 257
13.10 Additivity, Synergism and Antagonism of Flame Retardant Combinations......Page 258
References......Page 260
A1.1 Books......Page 262
A1.3 Journals and Business Periodicals......Page 263
A1.5 Internet Information Sources......Page 265
Appendix 2: Directory of Flame Retardant Manufacturers, Distributors, and Compounders......Page 267
A......Page 279
B......Page 286
C......Page 290
D......Page 298
E......Page 303
F......Page 307
G......Page 312
H......Page 314
I......Page 317
J......Page 319
K......Page 320
L......Page 321
M......Page 322
N......Page 327
O......Page 329
P......Page 330
R......Page 339
S......Page 341
T......Page 348
U......Page 353
V......Page 355
W......Page 357
Z......Page 358