Front Matter
Copyright
Contributors
Introduction to ferroelectrics and related materials
Ferroelectrics: A chronical journey
Signature of ferroelectricity: A polarization hysteresis loop
Thermodynamics of ferroelectrics
Classification of ferroelectrics
Perovskites
Aurivillius oxides
Tungsten-bronze family
Ilmenite compounds
Polymer ferroelectrics
Other classes of ferroelectrics
Ferroelectric perovskites
Distortions of cubic perovskites to ferroelectric phase
Displacement of B cations inside the oxygen octahedra
Tilt in oxygen octahedra
Distortion of the octahedron
Domain and domain walls in perovskites
Domain switching in perovskites and evolution of P-E loop
Other related phenomena
Piezoelectricity
Pyroelectricity and electrocaloric effect
Flexoelectricity
Crystallographic anisotropy of functional behavior
Characterization of ferroelectrics and related materials
Ferroelectric polarization characterization using Sawyer-Tower circuit
Determination of different piezoelectric coefficients
Resonance-Antiresonance method
Piezoelectric strain coefficient (d)
Electromechanical coupling coefficient (k)
Voltage output constant (g)
Quasi-static method for low-field longitudinal piezoelectric characterization
Piezoresponse force microscopy
Applications of ferroelectrics in energy harvesting
Solar energy harvesting
Mechanical energy harvesting
Magnetic energy harvesting
Thermal energy harvesting
Summary
References
Solar energy harvesting with ferroelectric materials
Introduction
Solar photovoltaics
Fundamentals of physics of solar photovoltaics
The solar spectra
Open circuit voltage, short-circuit current, quantum efficiency, and fill factor
Factors affecting the performance of a conventional solar cell
Photovoltaics with ferroelectrics
Bulk photovoltaic effect
Ferroelectric domain wall model
Schottky-junction effect
Depolarization field model
Design parameters for ferroelectric materials for PV applications
Perovskite photovoltaics
Fabrication of perovskite solar cell
Disadvantages of perovskite solar cell
Stability and limited service life
Noxious material
Tin-based halide perovskite:
Cesium tin iodines:
Methylammonium tin iodide:
Formamidinium tin iodide:
Transition metal oxides
Photochemical conversion of solar energy: Solar water splitting
Basics of solar water splitting
Ferroic materials for photoelectrochemical water splitting: Fundamentals of material requirement
Various ferroelectrics as photoelectrode material for PEC water splitting
Summary
References
Harvesting thermal energy with ferroelectric materials
Introduction
Ferroelectricity
Working principle of ferroelectric thermal energy harvesting
Ferroelectric thermodynamic cycles
Ferroelectric thermal energy harvesters
Other applications
Electrocaloric cooling
Pyroelectric detectors
Summary/future perspective
References
Leveraging size effects in flexoelectric-piezoelectric vibration energy harvesting
Introduction
Direct and converse flexoelectric and piezoelectric effects
Flexoelectric energy harvesting using a centrosymmetric cantilever
Flexoelectrically coupled mechanical equation and modal analysis
Flexoelectrically coupled electrical circuit equation and modal analysis
Closed-form voltage response and vibration response at steady state
Size effects on modal electromechanical coupling coefficient
Case studies and results
Electromechanical coupling coefficient and size effects
Resonant energy harvesting: Electromechanical frequency response and size effects
Size effects in piezoelectric energy harvesting due to flexoelectricity
Flexoelectrically and piezoelectrically coupled mechanical equation and modal analysis
Flexoelectrically and piezoelectrically coupled electrical circuit equation and modal analysis
Closed-form voltage response and vibration response at steady state
Flexoelectric-piezoelectric electromechanical coupling coefficient and size effects
Cases studies and results
Electromechanical coupling coefficient and size effects
Resonant energy harvesting: Electromechanical frequency response and size effects
Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
Modeling and identification of nonlinear piezoelectric material properties for energy harvesting
Introduction
Representation and implementation of constitutive relations
Direct excitation
Modeling using nonlinear stress and electric displacement constitutive relations
Modeling using electromechanical enthalpy
Reduced-order model: Galerkin discretization
Approximate solution: Method of multiple scales
Parameter identification strategy
Validation of parameter identification strategy
Parametric excitation
Mathematical modeling
Reduced-order model: Galerkin discretization
Approximate solution: Method of multiple scales
Parameter identification strategy
Validation of parameter identification strategy
Conclusions
Appendices
Simplification of weighted residual statement: Direct excitation
Simplification of weighted residual statement: Parametric excitation
References
Sustainable Composites for Lightweight Applications
Copyright
Preface
Key features of this book
Target audiences of this book
Chapter highlights of this book
1. Introduction to composite materials
1.1 Background and context
1.2 Matrices and their types
1.2.1 Types and main functions and the properties of matrices
1.2.1.1 Epoxy resins
1.2.1.2 Polyester resins
1.2.1.3 Vinyl ester resins
1.2.1.4 Phenolic resins
1.2.1.5 Polyethylene
1.2.1.6 Polypropylene
1.2.1.7 Polystyrene
1.2.1.8 Polylactic acid
1.3 Reinforcements and their types
1.3.1 Conventional reinforcements and their types
1.3.1.1 Glass fibres
1.3.1.2 Carbon fibres
1.3.1.3 Ceramic fibres
1.3.2 Natural fibres and their types
1.3.2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of natural fibres
1.4 Main drivers of composite materials
1.5 Application of sustainable composite materials
1.6 Summary
References
Further reading
2. Sustainable natural fibre reinforcements and their morphological structures
2.1 Commonly used sustainable materials (plant-based natural fibres reinforcements in composites)
2.1.1 Hemp fibres
2.1.2 Flax fibres
2.1.3 Jute fibres
2.1.4 Kenaf fibres
2.1.4.1 Advantages of kenaf fibres
2.1.5 Date palm fibres
2.1.6 Sisal fibres
2.1.7 Oil palm fibres
2.1.8 Banana fibres
2.2 Influence of processing and chemical composition on the properties
2.2.1 Importance of fibre processing parameters
2.2.2 Chemical composition and their influences on the properties
2.2.3 Cellulose structure
2.2.3.1 Cellulose
2.2.3.2 Hemicellulose
2.2.3.3 Lignin
2.3 Mechanical, physical and morphological characteristics of plant fibres
2.3.1 Morphological structure of natural fibres
2.3.1.1 Primary and secondary cell walls
2.3.1.2 Lumen
2.3.2 Effects of variable morphological structure and mechanical properties
2.4 Effects of variable morphology on properties
2.5 Physical and mechanical investigation of single fibres and fibre bundles
2.5.1 Importance of single fibre and fibre bundle properties
2.6 Summary
References
Further reading
3. Lightweight composites, important properties and applications
3.1 Lightweight composite materials: requirements and their key features
3.1.1 Lightweight concept
3.1.2 Lightweight drives
3.1.3 Achieving lightweighting potentials
3.1.4 Lightweighting benefits
3.2 Important properties
3.2.1 Mechanical properties of biobased composites
3.2.1.1 Tensile properties
3.2.1.2 Flexural properties
3.2.1.3 Impact properties
Parameters influencing the impact damage characteristics of composites
3.2.1.4 Fatigue properties
3.2.1.5 Creep behaviour
3.3 Thermal stability of biobased composites
3.3.1 Thermal degradation and stability of biobased composites
3.3.2 Flammability behaviour
3.3.2.1 Parameters influencing cone calorimeter performance
3.3.2.2 Ways for improvement of fire properties of natural fibre reinforcements and composites
3.3.3 Thermal conductivity measurements
3.3.3.1 Ways improving the thermal conductivity of polymer matrix composites
3.4 Environmental effects (water absorption) and their influence in different properties
3.4.1 Moisture diffusion mechanisms in composites
3.4.2 Effects of moisture diffusion the mechanical properties
3.5 Numerical modelling of mechanical properties and damage behaviour of natural fibre-reinforced biobased composites
3.5.1 Background
3.5.2 Predicting mechanical and damage behaviour of natural fibres and composites
3.5.2.1 Finite element method
3.5.2.2 Boundary element method
3.5.2.3 Finite difference method
3.5.3 The prediction of static mechanical properties of composites using FEA
3.6 Applications of lightweight natural fibre composites
3.6.1 Automotive application (road vehicles and land transport)
3.6.2 Aerospace and related application
3.6.3 Marine applications
3.6.4 The building construction application
3.6.5 Other applications
3.7 Conclusions
References
4. Design, manufacturing processes and their effects on bio-composite properties
4.1 Introduction and context
4.2 Eco-design and sustainability (design for environment and design for manufacturing)
4.2.1 Eco-design
4.2.2 Sustainability
4.2.3 Design for environment
4.2.3.1 Materials
4.2.3.2 Production
4.2.3.3 Distribution
4.2.3.4 Use
4.2.3.5 Recovery
4.2.4 Design for manufacture
4.3 Manufacturing processes and their influences on properties of bio-composites
4.3.1 Hand and spray lay-ups
4.3.1.1 Hand lay-up
4.3.1.2 Spray lay-up
4.3.2 Vacuum bagging moulding
4.3.3 Injection moulding
4.3.4 Compression moulding
4.3.5 Vacuum resin infusion
4.3.6 Pre-impregnated resin
4.3.7 Extrusion
4.3.8 Resin transfer moulding
4.3.9 Automated fibre placement
4.3.10 Filament winding
4.3.11 Autoclave moulding
4.3.12 Out-of-autoclave moulding
4.3.12.1 Autoclave and out-of-autoclave curing processes
4.3.13 Additive manufacturing
4.3.14 Brief comparison among manufacturing processes
4.4 Key drivers for cleaner production or green manufacturing
4.5 Manufacturing defects
4.5.1 Microcracks and cracks
4.5.2 Temperature effects
4.5.3 Moisture absorption
4.5.4 Inclusions or contamination
4.5.5 Porosity (void or pores)
4.5.6 Other manufacturing defects
4.6 Conclusions
References
5. Testing and damage characterisation of biocomposite materials
5.1 Introduction and context
5.2 Testing methods for damage characterisation and their importance
5.2.1 Visual inspection or testing
5.2.2 Ultrasonic testing
5.2.3 Thermography testing
5.2.4 Radiography testing
5.2.5 Electromagnetic testing
5.2.6 Acoustic emission inspection
5.2.7 Acousto-ultrasonic testing
5.2.8 Shearography testing
5.2.9 Computed tomography scanning
5.2.10 X-ray micro-computed tomography examination
5.2.11 Scanning electron microscopy
5.3 Damage mechanisms and types (key factors for improving damage resistance)
5.3.1 Damage types and mechanisms
5.3.2 Failure or damage modes
5.3.3 Failure or damage mechanisms associated with FRP composites
5.3.4 Damage detection in FRP composite structures
5.3.5 Key factors for improving damage resistance
5.4 Characterisation of damage modes using destructive and non-destructive damage analysis techniques (SEM, X-ray micro CT, AE, ...
5.4.1 Categorisation of NDT methods for FRP composite materials
5.4.2 Contact versus non-contact techniques
5.4.3 Inspection type versus NDT methods
5.4.4 Physical behaviours and structural integrity
5.5 Experimental and numerical modelling of damage modes and mechanisms
5.5.1 Impact damage
5.5.2 Fatigue life model
5.5.3 Thermal effects
5.6 Conclusions
References
6. Sustainable composites and techniques for property enhancement
6.1 The context of sustainability in composites (comparison of sustainability of biocomposites versus conventional composites t ...
6.2 Inherent properties of natural fibres of biocomposite materials
6.3 Improvement of reinforcements and matrices through various treatments and fillers
6.3.1 Fibre treatments
6.3.2 Chemical treatments
6.3.3 Physical treatments
6.3.4 Additive treatments
6.3.5 Biological treatments
6.4 Approaches towards overall property enhancement via hybridisation, pinning, stitching, among others
6.4.1 Stitching
6.4.2 Hybridisation
6.4.3 Pinning
6.4.4 Knitting
6.4.5 Weaving
6.4.6 Braiding
6.4.7 Tufting
6.5 Summary and further evaluation
6.6 Conclusion
References
7. Future outlooks and challenges of sustainable lightweight composites
7.1 Journey of composite materials towards sustainability
7.2 Market outlook and supply chain scenario
7.3 Challenges of achieving properties for lightweight applications
7.3.1 Materials and manufacturing process
7.3.2 Recyclability and end-of- life option
7.3.3 Long-term durability
7.4 Future outlook
References
Further reading
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
R
S
T
U
V
X
Biomechanical energy harvesting with piezoelectric materials
Introduction
Principles of biomechanical energy harvesting
Theoretical background (analysis with few cases)
Heel strike
Lower body parts (ankle, knee, hip) motion
Center of mass (CM) motion
Arm motion
Motions trajectory during human walking
Electrical response of piezoelectric material: Modeling
Design considerations and performance criterion
Cantilevers
Disks: Cymbal
Disk: Diaphragms
Other configurations
Performance criterion of piezoelectric energy harvester
State-of-the-art
Ceramic-based NGs
Polymer and polymer-ceramic composite-based NGs
Summary
Challenges and future outlook
Materials and process issues
Electrical output
Life span of devices
Encapsulation of energy harvesters
Flexibility of devices
Integration issues
Acknowledgments
References
Harvesting stray magnetic field for powering wireless sensors
Introduction
Energy sources for ubiquitous magnetic fields
Overview of a magnetic energy harvester
Piezoelectric materials
Polycrystalline piezoelectrics
Macro-fiber composite (MFC)
Single-crystal piezoelectrics
Single-crystal fiber composite (SFC)
Magnetostrictive materials
Terfenol-D (TbxDy1-xFe2)
Galfenol (FeGa alloy)
Nickel and Metglas
Multiferroic and magnetoelectric materials
Magneto-mechano-electric (MME) generator
Conversion improvement
Harvested energy transfer optimization
Design and applications
Optimization of the device and energy harvesting
Applications: Autonomous wireless sensor networks
Conclusion
Glossary
Acknowledgments
References
Lead-based and lead-free ferroelectric ceramic capacitors for electrical energy storage
Introduction
Energy storage in dielectric capacitors
Dielectric capacitors in pulsed power systems and their applications
Figures of merit for energy storage in dielectric capacitors
Energy storage density
Energy storage efficiency
Fatigue endurance
Thermal stability
Properties of interest for energy storage in dielectric capacitors
Dielectric permittivity and loss
Polarization and hysteresis loss
Leakage current
Dielectric strength or breakdown field
Lead (Pb) containing dielectric ceramic materials
Pb-based ferroelectrics
Pb-based relaxor ferroelectrics
(Pb,La)(Zr,Ti)O3 (PLZT) RFE ceramics and films
Pb-based solid solution RFEs
Pb-based antiferroelectrics
PbZrO3-based AFE ceramics and films
Pure PbZrO3 AFE materials
A-site-doped PbZrO3 AFE materials
A-, B-site co-doped PbZrO3 AFE materials
Pb-based complex perovskite AFEs
Lead (Pb)-free dielectric ceramic materials
Pb-free ferroelectrics
BaTiO3-based FE ceramics and films
(Bi0.5Na0.5)TiO3-based FE ceramics and films
Pb-free relaxor ferroelectrics
BaTiO3-based RFE ceramics and films
BaTiO3-Bi compound solid solution RFEs
BaTiO3-BiMO3 solid solution RFEs
BaTiO3-Bi(M1,M2)O3 solid solution RFEs
BiFeO3-based RFE ceramics and films
BiFeO3-BaTiO3 solid solution RFEs
BiFeO3-SrTiO3 solid solution RFEs
(K,Na)NbO3-based RFE ceramics and films
Pb-free antiferroelectrics
AgNbO3-based AFE ceramics
NaNbO3-based AFE ceramics
(Bi0.5Na0.5)TiO3-based AFE ceramics and films
(Bi0.5Nb0.5)TiO3-NaNbO3 solid solution AFE ceramics
HfO2-based AFE films
Summary and future directions
Acknowledgments
References
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
V
W