PRELIMS.pdf
Preface to the revised edition
Preface to first edition
Acknowledgements
About this book
Author biography
Vinod Kumar Khanna
Introduction
Academic qualifications
Work experience and accomplishments
Semiconductor facility creation and maintenance
Scientific positions held
Membership of professional societies
Foreign travel
Scholarships and awards
Research publications and books
Abbreviations, acronyms, chemical symbols and mathematical notation
Roman alphabet symbols
Greek/other symbols
CH001.pdf
Chapter 1 Introduction and overview
1.1 Reasons for moving away from normal practices in electronics
1.2 Organization of the book
1.3 Temperature effects
1.3.1 Silicon-based electronics
1.3.2 Wide bandgap semiconductors
1.3.3 Passive components and packaging
1.3.4 Superconductivity
1.4 Harsh environment effects
1.4.1 Humidity and corrosion effects
1.4.2 Radiation effects
1.4.3 Vibration and mechanical shock effects
1.4.4 Electronics in electromagnetic interference environments
1.4.5 Sensors in aggressive environments
1.4.6 Medical implant electronics
1.4.7 Space environment electronics
1.4.8 Jamming attacks prevention, and cyber security
1.5 Discussion and conclusions
Safeguarding electronics
Review exercises
References
CH002.pdf
Chapter 2 Operating electronics beyond conventional limits
2.1 Life-threatening temperature imbalances on Earth and other planets
2.2 Temperature disproportions for electronics
2.3 High-temperature electronics
2.3.1 The automotive industry
2.3.2 The aerospace industry
2.3.3 Space missions
2.3.4 Oil well logging equipment
2.3.5 Industrial and medical systems
2.4 Low-temperature electronics
2.5 The scope of extreme-temperature and harsh-environment electronics
2.5.1 High-temperature operation: a serious vulnerability
2.5.2 Upgradation/degradation of performance by cooling
2.5.3 Corrosion: humidity and climatic effects
2.5.4 Deleterious effects of nuclear and electromagnetic radiations on electronic systems
2.5.5 Vibration and shock effects
2.5.6 Special environments
2.6 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH003.pdf
Chapter 3 Temperature effects on semiconductors
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The energy bandgap
3.3 Intrinsic carrier concentration
3.4 Carrier saturation velocity
3.5 Electrical conductivity of semiconductors
3.6 Free carrier concentration in semiconductors
3.7 Incomplete ionization and carrier freeze-out
3.8 Different ionization regimes
3.8.1 At temperatures T < 100 K: carrier freeze-out or incomplete ionization regime
3.8.2 At temperatures T ∼ 100 K, and within 100 K < T < 500 K: extrinsic or saturation regime
3.8.3 At temperatures T > 500 K: intrinsic regime
3.8.4 Proportionality to bandgap at T ⩾ 400 K
3.9 Mobilities of charge carriers in semiconductors
3.9.1 Scattering by lattice waves
3.9.2 Scattering by ionized impurities
3.9.3 Mobility in uncompensated and compensated semiconductors
3.9.4 Resultant mobility
3.10 Equations for mobility variation with temperature
3.10.1 Arora–Hauser–Roulston equation
3.10.2 Klaassen equations
3.10.3 MINIMOS mobility model
3.11 Mobility in MOSFET inversion layers at low temperatures
3.12 Carrier lifetime
3.13 Wider bandgap semiconductors than silicon
3.13.1 Gallium arsenide
3.13.2 Silicon carbide
3.13.3 Gallium nitride
3.13.4 Diamond
3.14 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH004.pdf
Chapter 4 Temperature dependence of the electrical characteristics of silicon bipolar devices and circuits
4.1 Properties of silicon
4.2 Intrinsic temperature of silicon
4.3 Recapitulating single-crystal silicon wafer technology
4.3.1 Electronic grade polysilicon production
4.3.2 Single-crystal growth
4.3.3 Photolithography
4.3.4 Thermal oxidation of silicon
4.3.5 n-Type doping of silicon by thermal diffusion
4.3.6 p-Type doping of silicon by thermal diffusion
4.3.7 Impurity doping by ion implantation
4.3.8 Low-pressure chemical vapor deposition
4.3.9 Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition
4.3.10 Atomic layer deposition
4.3.11 Ohmic (non-rectifying) contacts to Si
4.3.12 Schottky contacts to Si
4.3.13 p–n Junction and dielectric isolation in silicon integrated circuits
4.4 Examining temperature effects on bipolar devices
4.4.1 The Shockley equation for the current–voltage characteristics of a p–n junction diode
4.4.2 Forward voltage drop across a p–n junction diode
4.4.3 Forward voltage of a Schottky diode
4.4.4 Reverse leakage current of a p–n junction diode
4.4.5 Avalanche breakdown voltage of a p–n junction diode
4.4.6 Analytical model of temperature coefficient of avalanche breakdown voltage
4.4.7 Zener breakdown voltage of a diode
4.4.8 Storage time (ts) of a p+–n junction diode
4.4.9 Current gain of a bipolar junction transistor
4.4.10 Approximate analysis
4.4.11 Saturation voltage of a bipolar junction transistor
4.4.12 Reverse base and emitter currents of a bipolar junction transistor (ICBO and ICEO)
4.4.13 Dynamic response of a bipolar transistor
4.5 Bipolar analog circuits in the 25 °C–300 °C range
4.6 Bipolar digital circuits in the 25 °C–340 °C range
4.7 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH005.pdf
Chapter 5 Temperature dependence of electrical characteristics of silicon MOS devices and circuits
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Threshold voltage of an n-channel enhancement-mode MOSFET
5.3 On-resistance (RDS(ON)) of a double-diffused vertical MOSFET
5.4 Transconductance (gm) of a MOSFET
5.5 BVDSS and IDSS of a MOSFET
5.6 Zero temperature coefficient biasing point of MOSFET
5.7 Dynamic response of a MOSFET
5.8 MOS analog circuits in the 25 °C to 300 °C range
5.9 Digital CMOS circuits in −196 °C to 270 °C range
5.10 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH006.pdf
Chapter 6 The influence of temperature on the performance of silicon–germanium heterojunction bipolar transistors
6.1 Introduction
6.2 HBT fabrication
6.3 Current gain and forward transit time of Si/Si1−xGex HBT
6.4 Comparison between Si BJT and Si/SiGe HBT
6.5 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH007.pdf
Chapter 7 The temperature-sustaining capability of gallium arsenide electronics
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The intrinsic temperature of GaAs
7.3 Growth of single-crystal gallium arsenide
7.4 Doping of GaAs
7.5 Ohmic contacts to GaAs
7.5.1 Au–Ge/Ni/Ti contact to n-type GaAs for room temperature operation
7.5.2 High-temperature ohmic contacts to n-type GaAs
7.6 Schottky contacts to GaAs
7.7 Commercial GaAs device evaluation in the 25 °C–400 °C temperature range
7.8 Structural innovations for restricting the leakage current of GaAs MESFET up to 300 °C
7.9 Won et al threshold voltage model for a GaAs MESFET
7.10 The high-temperature electronic technique for enhancing the performance of MESFETs up to 300 °C
7.11 The operation of GaAs complementary heterojunction FETs from 25 °C to 500 °C
7.12 GaAs bipolar transistor operation up to 400 °C
7.13 A GaAs-based HBT for applications up to 350 °C
7.14 AlxGaAs1−x/GaAs HBT
7.15 GaAs x-ray and beta particle detectors
7.16 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH008.pdf
Chapter 8 Silicon carbide electronics for hot environments
8.1 Impact of silicon carbide devices on power electronics and its superiority over silicon
8.2 Intrinsic temperature of silicon carbide
8.3 Silicon carbide single-crystal growth
8.4 Doping of silicon carbide
8.5 Surface oxidation of silicon dioxide
8.6 Schottky and ohmic contacts to silicon carbide
8.7 SiC p–n diodes
8.7.1 SiC diode testing up to 498 K
8.7.2 SiC diode testing up to 873 K
8.7.3 Operation of SiC integrated bridge rectifier up to 773 K
8.8 SiC Schottky barrier diodes
8.8.1 Temperature effects on Si and SiC Schottky diodes
8.8.2 Schottky diode testing up to 623 K
8.8.3 Schottky diode testing up to 523 K
8.9 SiC JFETs
8.9.1 Characterization of SiC JFETs from 25 °C to 450 °C
8.9.2 500 °C operational test of 6H-SiC JFETs and ICs
8.9.3 6H-SiC JFET-based logic circuits for the 25 °C–550 °C range
8.9.4 Long operational lifetime (10 000 h), 500 °C, 6H-SiC analog and digital ICs
8.9.5 Characterization of 6H-SiC JFETs and differential amplifiers up to 450 °C
8.10 SiC bipolar junction transistors
8.10.1 Characterization of SiC BJTs from 140 K to 460 K
8.10.2 Performance assessment of SiC BJT from −86 °C to 550 °C
8.11 SiC MOSFETs
8.12 SiC sensors
8.12.1 Flexible 3C-SiC temperature sensors working up to 450 °C
8.12.2 4H-SiC gas sensors operating up to 500 °C
8.12.3 3C-SiC MEMS pressure sensor working at 500 °C
8.13 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH009.pdf
Chapter 9 Gallium nitride electronics for very hot environments
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Intrinsic temperature of gallium nitride
9.3 Growth of the GaN epitaxial layer
9.4 Doping of GaN
9.5 Ohmic contacts to GaN
9.5.1 Ohmic contacts to n-type GaN
9.5.2 Ohmic contacts to p-type GaN
9.6 Schottky contacts to GaN
9.7 GaN MESFET model with hyperbolic tangent function
9.8 AlGaN/GaN HEMTs
9.8.1 Operation of AlGaN/GaN HEMTs on 4H-SiC/sapphire substrates from 25 °C to 500 °C
9.8.2 Life testing of AlGaN/GaN HEMTs from 150 °C to 240 °C
9.8.3 Power characteristics of AlGaN/GaN HEMTs up to 368 °C
9.8.4 Mechanisms of the failure of high-power AlGaN/GaN HEMTs at high temperatures
9.9 InAlN/GaN HEMTs
9.9.1 AlGaN/GaN versus InAlN/GaN HEMTs for high-temperature applications
9.9.2 InAlN/GaN HEMT behavior up to 1000 °C
9.9.3 Thermal stability of barrier layer in InAlN/GaN HEMTs up to 1000 °C
9.9.4 Feasibility demonstration of HEMT operation at gigahertz frequency up to 1000 °C
9.10 GaN sensors
9.10.1 GaN piezoelectric pressure sensor working up to 350 °C
9.10.2 GaN-based Hall-effect magnetic field sensors operating up to 400 °C
9.11 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH010.pdf
Chapter 10 Diamond electronics for ultra-hot environments
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Intrinsic temperature of diamond
10.3 Synthesis of diamond
10.4 Doping of diamond
10.4.1 n-Type doping
10.4.2 p-Type doping
10.4.3 p-Doping by hydrogenation termination of the diamond surface
10.5 A diamond p–n junction diode
10.6 Diamond Schottky diode
10.6.1 Diamond Schottky diode operation up to 1000 °C
10.6.2 Long-term operation of diamond Schottky barrier diodes up to 400 °C
10.7 Diamond bipolar junction transistor operating at < 200 °C
10.8 Diamond metal–semiconductor FET
10.8.1 Hydrogen-terminated diamond metal–semiconductor FETs
10.8.2 Electrical characteristics of diamond MESFETs in 20 °C–100 °C temperature range
10.8.3 Hydrogen-terminated diamond MESFETs with a passivation layer
10.8.4 Operation of pulse or delta boron-doped diamond MESFETs up to 350 °C
10.8.5 Alternative approach to boron δ-doping profile
10.9 Diamond JFET
10.9.1 Diamond JFETs with lateral p–n junctions
10.9.2 Operation of diamond JEFTs up to 723 K
10.10 Diamond MISFET
10.11 Diamond radiation detectors
10.11.1 Structural configuration
10.11.2 Radiation detection principles
10.11.3 Photoconduction and photovoltaic operational modes
10.11.4 Current and pulse counting modes
10.11.5 Advantages
10.12 Diamond quantum sensors
10.12.1 N-V center in diamond
10.12.2 N-V center creation in bulk diamond
10.12.3 Applications
10.13 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH011.pdf
Chapter 11 High-temperature passive components, interconnections and packaging
11.1 Introduction
11.2 High-temperature resistors
11.2.1 Metal foil resistors
11.2.2 Wire wound resistors
11.2.3 Thin-film resistors
11.2.4 Thick-film resistors
11.2.5 Manganese nitride compound resistors
11.3 High-temperature capacitors
11.3.1 Ceramic capacitors
11.3.2 Solid and wet tantalum capacitors
11.3.3 Teflon capacitors
11.4 High-temperature magnetic cores and inductors
11.4.1 Magnetic cores
11.4.2 Inductors
11.5 High-temperature metallization
11.5.1 Tungsten metallization on silicon
11.5.2 Tungsten: nickel metallization on nitrogen-doped homoepitaxial layers on p-type 4H- and 6H-SiC substrates
11.5.3 Nickel metallization on n-type 4H-SiC and Ni/Ti/Al metallization on p-type 4H-SiC
11.5.4 A thick-film Au interconnection system on alumina and aluminum nitride ceramic substrates
11.6 High-temperature packaging
11.6.1 Substrates
11.6.2 Die-attach materials
11.6.3 Wire bonding
11.6.4 Hermetic packaging
11.6.5 Joining the two parts of hermetic packages
11.7 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH012.pdf
Chapter 12 Superconductive electronics for ultra-cool environments
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Superconductivity basics
12.2.1 Low-temperature superconductors
12.2.2 Meissner effect
12.2.3 Critical magnetic field (HC) and critical current density (JC)
12.2.4 Superconductor classification: type I and type II
12.2.5 The BCS theory of superconductivity
12.2.6 Ginzburg–Landau theory
12.2.7 London equations
12.2.8 Explanation of Meissner’s effect from London equations
12.2.9 Practical applications
12.2.10 High-temperature superconductor
12.3 Josephson junction
12.3.1 The DC Josephson effect
12.3.2 The AC Josephson effect
12.3.3 Theory
12.3.4 Gauge-invariant phase difference
12.4 Inverse AC Josephson effect: Shapiro steps
12.5 Superconducting quantum interference devices
12.5.1 DC SQUID
12.5.2 The AC or RF SQUID
12.6 Rapid single flux quantum logic
12.6.1 Difference from traditional logic
12.6.2 Generation of RSFQ voltage pulses
12.6.3 RSFQ building blocks
12.6.4 RSFQ reset–set flip-flop
12.6.5 RSFQ NOT gate or inverter
12.6.6 RSFQ OR gate
12.6.7 Advantages of RSFQ logic
12.6.8 Disadvantages of RSFQ logic
12.7 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH013.pdf
Chapter 13 Superconductor-based microwave circuits operating at liquid-nitrogen temperatures
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Substrates for microwave circuits
13.3 HTS thin-film materials
13.3.1 Yttrium barium copper oxide
13.3.2 Thallium barium calcium copper oxide
13.4 Fabrication processes for HTS microwave circuits
13.5 Design and tuning approaches for HTS filters
13.6 Cryogenic packaging
13.7 HTS bandpass filters for mobile telecommunications
13.7.1 Filter design methodology
13.7.2 Filter fabrication and characterization
13.8 HTS JJ-based frequency down-converter
13.9 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH014.pdf
Chapter 14 High-temperature superconductor-based power delivery
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Conventional electrical power transmission
14.2.1 Transmission materials
14.2.2 High-voltage transmission
14.2.3 Overhead versus underground power delivery
14.3 HTS wires
14.3.1 First generation (1G) HTS wire
14.3.2 Second-generation (2G) HTS wire
14.4 HTS cable designs
14.4.1 Single-phase warm dielectric HTS cable
14.4.2 Single-phase cool dielectric HTS cable
14.4.3 Flow rate, pressure drop and HTS cable temperatures
14.4.4 Three-phase cold dielectric HTS cable
14.5 HTS fault current limiters
14.5.1 Resistive SFCL
14.5.2 Shielded-core SFCL
14.5.3 Saturable-core SFCL
14.6 HTS transformers
14.7 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH015.pdf
Chapter 15 Humidity and contamination effects on electronics
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Absolute and relative humidity
15.3 Relation between humidity, contamination and corrosion
15.4 Metals and alloys used in electronics
15.5 Humidity-triggered corrosion mechanisms
15.5.1 Electrochemical corrosion
15.5.2 Anodic corrosion
15.5.3 Galvanic corrosion
15.5.4 Cathodic corrosion
15.5.5 Creep corrosion
15.5.6 Stray current corrosion
15.5.7 The pop-corning effect
15.6 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH016.pdf
Chapter 16 Moisture and waterproof electronics
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Corrosion prevention by design
16.2.1 The fault-tolerant design approach
16.2.2 Air–gas contact minimization
16.2.3 The tight dry encasing design
16.2.4 A judicious choice of materials for boundary surfaces
16.3 Parylene coatings
16.3.1 Parylene and its advantages
16.3.2 Types of parylene
16.3.3 The vapor deposition polymerization process for parylene coatings
16.3.4 Typical electrical properties
16.3.5 Applications for corrosion prevention
16.4 Superhydrophobic coatings
16.4.1 Concept of superhydrophobicity
16.4.2 Standard deposition techniques versus plasma processes
16.4.3 The main technologies
16.4.4 Applications
16.5 Volatile corrosion inhibitor coatings
16.6 Silicones
16.7 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH017.pdf
Chapter 17 Preventing chemical corrosion in electronics
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Sulfidic and oxidation corrosion from environmental gases
17.3 Electrolytic ion migration and galvanic coupling
17.4 Internal corrosion of integrated and printed circuit board circuits
17.5 Fretting corrosion
17.6 Tin whisker growth
17.7 Minimizing corrosion risks
17.7.1 Using non-corrosive chemicals in device application and assembly
17.7.2 Device protection with conformal coatings
17.8 Further protection methods
17.8.1 Potting or overmolding with a plastic
17.8.2 Porosity sealing or vacuum impregnation
17.9 Hermetic packaging
17.9.1 Multilayer ceramic packages
17.9.2 Pressed ceramic packages
17.9.3 Metal can packages
17.10 Hermetic glass passivation of discrete high-voltage diodes, transistors and thyristors
17.11 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH018.pdf
Chapter 18 Radiation effects on electronics
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Sources of radiation
18.2.1 Natural radiation sources
18.2.2 Man-made or artificial radiation sources
18.3 Types of radiation effects
18.3.1 Total ionizing dose (TID) effect
18.3.2 Single-event effect
18.3.3 Dose-rate effect
18.4 Total dose effects
18.4.1 Gamma-ray effects
18.4.2 Neutron effects
18.5 Single-event effects
18.5.1 Non-destructive SEEs
18.5.2 Destructive SSEs
18.6 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH019.pdf
Chapter 19 Radiation-hardened electronics
19.1 The meaning of ‘radiation hardening’
19.2 Radiation hardening by process (RHBP)
19.2.1 Reduction of space charge formation in silicon dioxide layers
19.2.2 Impurity profile tailoring and carrier lifetime control
19.2.3 Triple-well CMOS technology
19.2.4 Adoption of silicon-on-insulator technology
19.3 Radiation hardening by design
19.3.1 Edgeless or annular MOSFETs
19.3.2 Channel stoppers and guard rings
19.3.3 Controlling the charge dissipation by increasing the channel width to the channel length ratio
19.3.4 Temporal filtering
19.3.5 Spatial redundancy
19.3.6 Temporal redundancy
19.3.7 Dual interlocked storage cell
19.4 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH020.pdf
Chapter 20 Vibration-tolerant electronics
20.1 Vibration is omnipresent
20.2 Random and sinusoidal vibrations
20.3 Countering vibration effects
20.4 Passive and active vibration isolators
20.5 Theory of passive vibration isolation
20.5.1 Case I: free undamped vibrations
20.5.2 Case II: forced undamped vibrations
20.5.3 Case III: forced vibrations with viscous damping
20.6 Mechanical spring vibration isolators
20.7 Air-spring vibration isolators
20.8 Wire-rope isolators
20.9 Elastomeric isolators
20.10 Negative stiffness isolators
20.11 Active vibration isolators
20.11.1 Working
20.11.2 Advantages
20.11.3 Applications
20.12 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH021.pdf
Chapter 21 Making electronics compatible with electromagnetic interference environments
21.1 Electromagnetic interference
21.2 Electromagnetic compatibility
21.3 Classification of EMI
21.3.1 Sources of EMI
21.3.2 EMI production mechanisms
21.3.3 Duration of EMI
21.3.4 Bandwidth of EMI
21.4 Effects of EMI
21.4.1 EMI noise signal
21.4.2 Examples of disablement of equipment functions by EMI
21.5 Single-ended and differential transmission of signals
21.5.1 Single-ended transmission of signals
21.5.2 Differential transmission of signals
21.5.3 Effects of EMI currents induced in the wires by magnetic fields generated around them during high-frequency differential current flow
21.6 Differential- and common-mode voltages
21.7 Differential-mode interference
21.7.1 Cause of differential-mode interference
21.7.2 Differential-mode noise voltage
21.7.3 Differential-mode noise current
21.8 Common-mode interference
21.8.1 Cause of common-mode interference
21.8.2 Common-mode interference noise voltage
21.8.3 Common-mode interference noise current
21.9 Twisted pair cable for common-mode EMI noise rejection
21.9.1 The twisted wires
21.9.2 Magnetic fields and induced currents
21.9.3 Induced current cancellation
21.9.4 Untwisted wires
21.9.5 Subdual of EMI in twisted wires from self and external EMI
21.9.6 Explanation of distance effect on noise creation in untwisted and twisted wires with assumed noise potentials per unit length
21.9.7 EMI not stopped, only weakened
21.9.8 Applications of twisted wire cables
21.10 Common-mode interference from common impedance coupling
21.11 Combined EMI noise
21.12 Filters for EMI noise suppression
21.12.1 Differential-mode EMI noise filter
21.12.2 Common-mode EMI noise filter
21.13 Grounding
21.13.1 Ground loops, and a simplified ground loop circuit
21.13.2 Induction of interference currents by stray magnetic fields
21.14 Grounding approaches
21.14.1 Single-point grounding
21.14.2 Multi-point grounding
21.14.3 Hybrid grounding
21.14.4 Comparison of single-point, multi-point and hybrid grounding approaches
21.15 EMI shielding
21.15.1 Shielding efficiency
21.15.2 Shielding materials
21.15.3 The Faraday cage
21.15.4 Board level shielding (BLS) for PCBs
21.15.5 Unshielded and shielded twisted pair cables
21.15.6 Types of shielded twisted pair cables
21.16 Grounding of shielded cables
21.16.1 Electrical shielding
21.16.2 Magnetic shielding
21.16.3 Considerations for a shielded cable grounded at both ends
21.17 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH022.pdf
Chapter 22 Developing sensor capabilities for aggressive environments
22.1 Disorganized scenario in a harsh environment, and denial of accessibility to the sensor
22.2 High-temperature sensors
22.3 Need of tightly monitoring energy systems aggravates burden on sensors
22.4 Accelerometers
22.4.1 All 4H-SiC MEMS piezoresistive accelerometer
22.4.2 Piezoelectric YCa4O(BO3)3 (YCOB) single-crystal-based accelerometer
22.4.3 Optical accelerometer
22.5 Flow sensors
22.5.1 3C-SiC on-glass-based thermal flow sensor
22.5.2 Fiber optic flow sensor
22.6 Pressure sensors
22.6.1 Silicon carbide capacitive pressure sensor
22.6.2 Micromachined pressure sensor with sapphire membrane and platinum thin film strain gauges
22.6.3 Ceramic nanofiber-based flexible pressure sensor
22.6.4 All SiC fiber optic pressure sensor
22.7 Temperature sensors
22.7.1 SOI diode temperature sensor
22.7.2 LTCC wireless temperature sensor
22.7.3 Langasite SAW resonator-based high temperature sensor
22.7.4 Sapphire fiber Bragg grating as temperature sensor
22.8 Humidity sensors
22.8.1 Micromachined humidity sensor
22.8.2 Optical humidity sensor based on hydrogel thin film expansion
22.9 Gas sensors
22.9.1 TiO2–ZrO2 oxygen lambda sensors
22.9.2 Mixed potential CO sensor
22.9.3 SiC FET sensor for NO, NH3, O2, CO, and SO2
22.10 Discussions and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH023.pdf
Chapter 23 Adapting medical implant electronics to human biological environments
23.1 Environment inside the human body
23.1.1 Water in the body
23.1.2 Electrolytes in the body
23.2 Essential properties of packaging materials for reliable functioning of implanted medical electronic devices
23.2.1 Hermeticity
23.2.2 Biocompatibility
23.2.3 Mechanical flexibility
23.2.4 Weight
23.2.5 Internal outgassing
23.2.6 Radio frequency transparency
23.2.7 Heat generation minimization
23.2.8 Thermal expansion coefficients matching
23.2.9 Ease of processing
23.2.10 Other properties
23.3 Studying biological response vis-à-vis material properties
23.4 Foreign body reaction to implanted biomaterials
23.4.1 Post implantation acute and chronic inflammation phases
23.4.2 Stages of inflammatory response
23.5 Biomaterials for implants
23.5.1 Metals
23.5.2 Ceramics
23.5.3 Polymers
23.5.4 Composites
23.6 Metallic biomaterials
23.6.1 Titanium (Ti) and its alloys
23.6.2 Cobalt–chromium alloys
23.6.3 Stainless steels
23.7 Ceramic biomaterials
23.7.1 Classes of ceramics
23.7.2 Processing of ceramics
23.7.3 Making hermetic ceramic feedthroughs by conventional brazing
23.7.4 Making ceramic feedthroughs using extruded metal vias
23.8 Polymeric biomaterials
23.8.1 PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane)
23.8.2 Polyimide
23.8.3 PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride)
23.8.4 Parylene-C
23.8.5 Liquid crystal polymers (LCPs)
23.8.6 Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU)
23.9 Composite biomaterials
23.9.1 Metal matrix composites
23.9.2 Ceramic matrix composites
23.9.3 Polymer matrix composites
23.10 Implantable microelectrode arrays for neuroprosthetics
23.11 Optrode array with integrated LEDs
23.11.1 Applications of the array
23.11.2 Working of the array
23.11.3 Fabrication of the array
23.12 Operation of an implanted electronics device enclosed in a soft polymer covering
23.13 Anti-foreign body reaction (FBR) techniques for domestication/mitigation of FBR to implants
23.13.1 Optimization of size, shape and texture of the implant
23.13.2 Drug co-delivery
23.13.3 Using bioresorbable materials for building implants
23.13.4 Using zwitterionic materials
23.14 Sensors working in biological environments
23.14.1 Sensors which can work by indirect interaction through shielding films
23.14.2 Sensors in which direct interaction of sensor surface with body fluids is needed
23.15 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH024.pdf
Chapter 24 Meeting the challenges faced by electronics in unfavorable space environments
24.1 The challenge of vibrations and shocks
24.1.1 Sources of vibrations in space vehicles
24.1.2 Effects of vibrations on onboard electronic printed-circuit board assemblies (PCBAs)
24.1.3 Protection of PCB from vibration
24.1.4 Dampening and isolation of vibrations
24.2 The challenge of temperature excursions beyond safe limits
24.2.1 Need of thermal control on space vehicles
24.2.2 Passive thermal control
24.2.3 Active thermal control
24.3 The challenge of electrical charging of spacecraft
24.3.1 Surface charging
24.3.2 Internal charging (deep dielectric charging or bulk charging or buried charging)
24.4 The challenge of tin whisker growth
24.4.1 Tin whiskers
24.4.2 Risks to electronic circuits
24.4.3 Theories of whisker growth
24.4.4 Methods to reduce whisker growth
24.5 The challenge of erosion of spacecraft materials by atomic oxygen
24.5.1 Crippling effects of atomic oxygen on space missions
24.5.2 Erosion yield
24.5.3 AO effects on metals
24.5.4 AO effects on polymers
24.5.5 Protection of polymers
24.5.6 AO effects on glasses and thermal coatings
24.6 The challenge of radiation showers
24.6.1 Inapplicability of common shielding practices to electronics in space
24.6.2 Gamma ray shielding materials
24.6.3 Neutron radiation shielding materials
24.6.4 Adapting conformal coatings for shielding electronics in space
24.7 The challenge of outgassing in vacuum environment of space
24.7.1 Outgassing sources and mechanisms
24.7.2 Effects of outgassing
24.7.3 Lowering of space vacuum by outgassing, and hampering of high-voltage operations
24.7.4 Alleviation of outgassing contamination
24.8 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References
CH025.pdf
Chapter 25 Electronics jamming counteraction and cybersecurity assurance in adversary environments
25.1 A jamming attack
25.2 Types of jamming and jammers
25.2.1 Classification by type of jamming signal used
25.2.2 Classification by characteristic features of jammers
25.3 Detection of jamming attacks
25.3.1 From signal strength
25.3.2 From carrier sensing time
25.3.3 From packet delivery ratio (PDR)
25.4 Mapping out jammed area and planning the defense strategy against jamming
25.5 Approaches to overcome jamming
25.5.1 Retreating away from the jammer
25.5.2 Resource adjustment to actively compete with the jammer
25.5.3 Adopting jamming-resistant communication techniques
25.6 Retreating methods
25.6.1 Spatial retreat
25.6.2 Channel surfing
25.7 Competition method: regulation of transmitted power and error correcting code
25.8 Jamming-resistant spread-spectrum communication systems
25.8.1 Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
25.8.2 Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
25.8.3 Hybrid FHSS/DSSS
25.9 Ethical hacking
25.9.1 The white hat hacker
25.9.2 Phases of ethical hacking
25.10 Malware (malicious software)
25.10.1 Virus
25.10.2 Worm
25.10.3 Trojan horse
25.10.4 Wiper
25.10.5 Spyware
25.10.6 Ransomware
25.10.7 Rogue security software
25.10.8 Scareware
25.10.9 Crypto jacker
25.10.10 Keylogger
25.10.11 Rootkit
25.10.12 Fileless malware
25.11 Hacking threats and attacks
25.11.1 Advanced persistent threat (APT)
25.11.2 Arbitrary code execution (ACE)
25.11.3 Backdoor attack
25.11.4 Code injection and cross-site scripting (XSS)
25.11.5 Drive-by-download and data breach
25.11.6 Denial-of-service (DoS) attack
25.11.7 Eavesdropping
25.11.8 Email spoofing
25.11.9 Exploit
25.11.10 Malvertising
25.11.11 Social engineering
25.11.12 Phishing
25.11.13 Privilege escalation
25.11.14 Spamming
25.11.15 Zombie attacks
25.11.16 Botnet attacks
25.12 Defences against hacking
25.12.1 Access control software
25.12.2 Anti-keylogger
25.12.3 Anti-malware
25.12.4 Anti-spyware software
25.12.5 Anti-subversion software
25.12.6 Anti-tampering software
25.12.7 Anti-theft system
25.12.8 Cryptographic/encryption software
25.12.9 Firewall
25.12.10 Intrusion detection system/intrusion prevention system (IDS/IPS)
25.12.11 Sandbox
25.12.12 Security information and event management (SIEM)
25.12.13 Software patch
25.12.14 Vulnerability management software
25.12.15 Packet sniffer
25.12.16 Public key infrastructure services
25.12.17 Managed detection and response (MDR) services
25.12.18 Vulnerability assessment and penetration testing (VAPT) tools
25.13 Discussion and conclusions
Review exercises
References