Cover......Page 1
Half Title......Page 2
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Table of Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 8
Acknowledgments......Page 12
Part I Fundamentals......Page 14
1 Introduction......Page 16
2.1 Literature Research......Page 20
2.2 Reading Scientific Papers......Page 21
2.3 Experimental Design......Page 22
2.4 Modeling......Page 24
2.6 Lab Notebooks......Page 26
2.7 Troubleshooting......Page 27
3.1 The Process of Scientific Communication......Page 32
Graphs......Page 33
Diagrams......Page 35
3.3 Writing Scientific Papers......Page 36
Listening to Talks......Page 39
3.5 Preparing and Presenting Posters......Page 40
4 Uncertainty and Statistics......Page 42
Accuracy vs. Precision......Page 43
Where Do These Systematic Errors Come From?......Page 44
4.3.1 Sample vs Population and the Gaussian Distribution......Page 45
4.3.4 Median and Mode......Page 47
4.4 Confidence Intervals......Page 48
4.5 Student’s t-Distribution......Page 49
4.7 Quantitative Comparisons, or How Not to Be Misled by Error Bars......Page 51
Direct Substitution......Page 52
Addition in Quadrature......Page 53
4.9 More of the Instrumental Uncertainty Method, Including “Absolute Tolerance”......Page 54
4.10 Parameter Fitting......Page 56
Interpreting χ2......Page 60
Fitting Routines and How to Make Them Work for You......Page 61
Outliers and Outlier Rejection......Page 62
4.12 What to Do When Something Goes Wrong......Page 63
4.13 Homework Problems......Page 64
Acknowledgment......Page 65
5 Scientific Ethics......Page 66
5.2 FFP: The Cardinal Sins......Page 67
5.3 Data Ethics......Page 69
5.4 Publishing and Credit......Page 71
5.5 Academia......Page 73
5.6 Equality and Equity......Page 75
5.7 Financial Considerations......Page 76
5.8 Safety......Page 78
5.9 Communication......Page 79
5.10 Regulations......Page 81
5.11 Choice of Research......Page 82
Part II Tools of an Experimentalist......Page 84
6 Analog Electronics......Page 86
Motivation, Voltage Dividers......Page 87
What Is an Ideal Battery?......Page 88
Ground vs. Common, Behavior of Real Batteries with “No Load” vs. with Rload......Page 89
How to Measure Output Impedance......Page 90
Functional Blocks, the Scientific Debugging Process......Page 91
An Example of Complex Input Impedance......Page 92
Combining the Ideas of Input and Output Impedance: Loading Effects......Page 93
How to Measure Input Impedance......Page 94
How to Calculate Input Impedance by Looking at a Schematic Diagram......Page 95
How to Calculate Output Impedance by Looking at a Schematic Diagram......Page 96
Other Examples, Application to Debugging......Page 97
Input and Output Impedance of Filters......Page 98
6.4 Amplifier Fundamentals......Page 99
6.5 Capacitively Coupled Interference......Page 101
Common vs. Ground......Page 102
Single-Ended vs. Differential Amplifiers......Page 103
Background......Page 104
How to Minimize It......Page 106
Ground Loops......Page 107
6.7 Noise......Page 109
Noise Amplitude......Page 110
Combining Noise Sources......Page 112
Fourier Spectral Characteristics of Noise......Page 113
Lab 6A Input and Output Impedance Revisited, Surprising Effects of Capacitance......Page 117
Introduction......Page 118
Lab 6B Intermediate-level Scope Mastery......Page 120
Introduction......Page 121
Introduction......Page 123
Lab 6D Inductively Coupled Interference and Ground Loops......Page 127
Part 1: DC Offsets and Amplifier Noise......Page 132
Part 2: Introduction to LabVIEW......Page 134
Introduction and Background......Page 137
Experimental Procedure......Page 143
6.11 Homework Problems......Page 145
7.1 Introduction: The Difference between Digital and Analog......Page 146
Approaches to Interfacing......Page 147
7.2 Sampling Rate, Resolution, and the Importance of Analog Amplification......Page 148
7.3 The Nyquist Frequency, Aliasing, Windowing, and Experimental Fourier Analysis......Page 149
Aliasing......Page 152
Windowing......Page 153
7.4 Preview of the Arduino......Page 155
8 Digital Electronics......Page 156
8.2 Truth Tables......Page 157
8.3.1 Basic Gates......Page 158
8.3.2 Multi-Gate Circuits......Page 160
8.4 Boolean Algebra......Page 161
8.4.4 Algebraic Relations......Page 162
8.5.1 Sum-of-Products......Page 164
8.5.2 Product-of-Sums......Page 165
8.6.1 Coders/Decoders......Page 166
8.7.2 The Full-Adder......Page 168
8.8.1 The Flip-Flop......Page 169
8.8.2 Switch De-Bouncing with the  Flip-Flop......Page 170
8.8.3 Simple Counters......Page 172
8.9 Synchronous Logic......Page 173
8.9.1 Describing Synchronous Systems......Page 174
8.9.2 Designing Synchronous Circuits with D-Type Flip-Flops......Page 175
8.9.4 External Inputs......Page 176
8.9.5 Resetting Synchronous Circuits......Page 177
8A.1 Combinatorial Logic......Page 178
8A.2 Sequential Logic......Page 180
8A.3 Synchronous Sequential Machines......Page 182
Lab 8B Controlling the World with Arduino......Page 183
Lab 8C Interfacing an Experiment with Arduino......Page 195
Lab 8D Arduino Motor Control......Page 201
Lab 8E Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs)......Page 206
9 Data Acquisition and Experiment Control with Python......Page 208
9.1.1 Automation Technologies......Page 209
9.2.1 Automation Risks......Page 211
9.3.1 Programming Best Practices......Page 212
9.3.2 Self-Guided Python Tutorial......Page 214
9.3.3 Working with Python Files......Page 217
9.4.1 Materials......Page 219
9.4.2 Complete Warm-Up Experiment......Page 220
9.5 Experiment......Page 222
9.5.2 Hardware Limitations......Page 223
9.5.5 Plan the Software Workflow......Page 224
9.5.7 Performing Useful Science with Your Experimental System......Page 228
9.6 Advanced Lab: Leverage the PLACE Framework......Page 229
9.7 Homework Problems......Page 237
10 Basic Optics Techniques and Hardware......Page 240
10.1 Laser Safety......Page 241
Optical Tables and Breadboards......Page 242
Posts, Postholders, and Pedestals......Page 243
10.4 Optical Elements......Page 245
Lenses......Page 246
Mirrors......Page 247
Beamsplitters......Page 248
Polarizers and Waveplates......Page 249
10.6 Alignment......Page 251
10.7 Protection, Storage, and Cleaning......Page 253
Labeling......Page 254
Classical Polarization and Interference......Page 255
Aligning a Laser with the Grid of Holes......Page 256
Insert Mirrors 3 and 4, and Align the Beams......Page 257
Adding the Final Polarizer......Page 258
Understanding Interference, and the “Quantum Eraser”......Page 259
Learning Goals......Page 260
11.2 Polarization......Page 261
11A.1 Optical Activity......Page 265
11A.3 Circular Polarizer......Page 266
11A.4 Elliptical Polarization......Page 267
11.3 Gaussian Beams......Page 268
11B.1 Focusing a Beam and f-Number......Page 271
11B.3 The Mathematical Structure of Gaussian Beams......Page 272
12.1 Introduction......Page 276
13.1.1 Introduction......Page 280
13.1.2 Activity......Page 281
13.1.3 Safety......Page 283
13.2.1 GM Tubes1,......Page 284
13.2.2 Scintillator-Based Detectors1,9......Page 286
Concept Test......Page 287
13.3 Interactions with Matter......Page 288
13.4 Counting Statistics......Page 289
13.5 Homework Problems......Page 292
13A.1 Objectives......Page 294
13A.3.1 Background Measurement......Page 295
13A.3.3 Measurement of GM Tube Dead Time......Page 296
13A.3.5 Measuring Count Rate vs. Absorber Thickness......Page 297
Part III Fields of Physics......Page 300
14.1 Introduction......Page 302
14.2.1 Research Goals......Page 303
14.2.3 Work Plan......Page 305
14.2.4 Equipment and Infrastructure......Page 307
14.3.1 Navigating Group Dynamics......Page 309
14.3.2 Weekly Planning......Page 310
14.3.4 Summary......Page 311
15.1 Introduction......Page 312
Method 1: Entire Chain......Page 313
Lab 15A Quantitative Measurement of Johnson Noise......Page 314
Pre-Lab Question 15A.1......Page 315
Experimental Considerations......Page 317
Pre-Lab Question 15A.2: Why Should the Box Be Grounded?......Page 318
Uncertainty Analysis......Page 319
16.1 Introduction......Page 320
Chemical Sensing and Response......Page 321
Hardware Assembly......Page 322
An Alternative Stimulus......Page 323
Control Experiments......Page 324
Chemotaxis Experiments......Page 327
Lab 16B Biophysics: Modeling and Stimulating Behavior......Page 328
Random Walks......Page 329
Diffusion......Page 330
Two-Dimensional Random Walks......Page 331
Simulated Control Experiments......Page 332
Simulated Chemotaxis: Elements of Navigation Strategy......Page 335
Lab 16C Biomechanics: Modeling Physical Actions......Page 336
17 Non-Linear, Granular, and Fluid Physics......Page 340
17.1 Introduction......Page 341
Goals of This Experiment......Page 342
Introduction to Fluid Dynamics......Page 343
Exercises......Page 344
Exercises......Page 345
Polymers and the Maxwell Model......Page 346
Part I: Low-Viscosity Newtonian Pinch-Off......Page 347
Initial Setup......Page 348
Obtaining Good Images......Page 349
Data Analysis......Page 350
The Experiment......Page 351
Suggested Extensions to This Lab......Page 352
18 Atomic and Molecular Physics......Page 354
18A.2 Introduction......Page 355
18A.4 Laser Safety......Page 356
18A.5 Pre-lab Questions......Page 357
Hyperfine Structure of Rubidium......Page 358
The Zeeman Effect and Circular Dichroism in Rubidium......Page 359
18A.7 Experimental Setup......Page 360
18A.8 Procedure......Page 361
18A.9 Analysis......Page 366
18B.3 Pre-lab Reading......Page 367
18B.6 Background......Page 368
Doppler Broadening......Page 369
Saturated Absorption Spectroscopy......Page 370
18B.7 Experimental Setup......Page 372
18B.8 Procedure......Page 374
Crossover Resonances......Page 380
Preliminaries......Page 381
The Main Course......Page 382
19.1 Overview......Page 384
Types of Fiber Optic Cable......Page 385
Fiber Optic Connectors......Page 387
Lab 19B Fiber Optic Sagac Interferometer......Page 388
20.1 Introduction......Page 390
Basic Features......Page 391
Procedure......Page 393
Pre-setup (Optionally Can Be Completed by the Instructor)......Page 394
Setting up the Alignment Beam......Page 395
Theory......Page 398
20A.3 Questions......Page 399
Lab 20B Entanglement and a Bell Test of Local Realism......Page 400
20B.1 Theory......Page 401
20B.2 Procedure......Page 404
20B.3 Questions......Page 406
Interference......Page 407
Distinguishability......Page 409
Coherence Length......Page 410
20C.2 Procedure......Page 411
Alignment......Page 412
Interference......Page 413
20C.3 Questions......Page 414
21 Nuclear and Particle Physics......Page 416
21.1The Standard Model......Page 417
The Fundamental Forces......Page 418
Hadrons: Particles Made Out of Quarks......Page 419
Active Areas of Particle Physics......Page 420
21.3Cosmic Rays and Cosmic Ray Muons......Page 421
21.4Modeling Muon Rates......Page 422
Predicting the Detection Rate......Page 423
21A.1 Introduction......Page 424
21A.2 Building the Muon Telescope: Overview of Mechanical Structure......Page 425
21A.3 The Scintillator and the Silicon Photomultiplier......Page 427
21A.4 Assembling the Mechanical Structure and Initial Testing......Page 430
Examining the Raw Signal......Page 431
Amplification......Page 432
Signal Stretching (or “Peak Detecting”) Circuit......Page 434
The Schmitt Trigger – Digitizing the Signal with a LM311......Page 436
21A.6 Counting the Number of Coincidence Signals Using an Arduino Uno/SparkFun Redboard......Page 439
Optional Python Code to Complete the Data Acquisition System......Page 441
21A.8 Post-lab Questions......Page 442
Index......Page 444