Evidence-Based Physical Diagnosis

✍ Scribed by Steven McGee

• Publisher: Elsevier
• Year: 2021
• Tongue: English
• Leaves: 815
• Edition: 5
• Category: Library

✦ Table of Contents

Cover
Any screen. Any time. Anywhere.
Evidence-Based Physical Diagnosis
Copyright
Dedication
Preface to the Fifth Edition
Contents
1
What is Evidence-Based Physical Diagnosis?
2
Diagnostic Accuracy of Physical Findings
I. Introduction
II. Pre-Test Probability
III. Sensitivity and Specificity
A. Definitions
B. Using Sensitivity and Specificity to Determine Probability of Disease
IV. Likelihood Ratios
A. Definition
B. Using LRS to Determine Probability
1. Using Graphs
a. Parts of the graph
b. Using the Graph to Determine Probability
2. Approximating Probability
3. Calculating Probability
C. Advantages of Likelihood Ratios
1. Simplicity
2. Accuracy
3. Levels of Findings
4. Combining Findings
a. Independence of Findings
b. How to Combine Findings
References
3
Using the Tables in This Book
I. Introduction
II. Frequency of Findings Tables
A. Definition
B. Parts of the Table
1. Finding
2. Frequency
3. Footnotes
C. Interpretation
III. Diagnostic Accuracy Tables (EBM Boxes)
A. Definition
B. Parts of the EBM Box
1. Finding
2. Sensitivity and Specificity
3. Likelihood Ratios
4. Footnote
C. Interpretation of EBM Box
IV. Criteria for Selecting Studies Used in Diagnostic Accuracy Tables
A. Patients Were Symptomatic
B. Definition of Physical Sign
C. Independent Comparison to a Diagnostic Standard
D. 2 × 2 Table Could be Constructed
V. Summarizing Likelihood Ratios
References
4
Using the Online EBM Calculator
I. The Evidence-Based Medicine Calculator
II. Using the Calculator
A. Blank Calculator
B. Calculating Probability for Specific Conditions
5
Reliability of Physical Findings
Appendix. Calculation of the κ-statistic
References
6
Mental Status Examination
I. Introduction
Test
A. TECHNIQUE AND SCORING
B. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
III. Mini-Cog Test
A. TECHNIQUE AND SCORING
B. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
IV. Mini-Mental Status Examination (MMSE)
A. INTRODUCTION
B. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
V. Diagnosis of Delirium (Confusion Assessment Method)
A. SCORING
B. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
References
7
Stance and Gait
I. Introduction
II. Etiology of Gait Disorders
III. Types of Gait Disorders and Their Significance
A. Painful Gait (Antalgic Gait)
1. Short Contralateral Step
2. Other Characteristic Features
a. Foot Pain
b. Knee Pain
c. Hip Pain (Coxalgic Gait)
B. Immobile Joints
C. Weakness of Specific Muscles
1. Trendelenburg Gait and Sign (Abnormal Gluteus Medius And Minimus Gait)
a. Definition Of Trendelenburg Gait (Or Trendelenburg’s Symptom Friedrich Trendelenburg, 1844 to 1924)
b. Etiology of Trendelenburg Gait
c. Trendelenburg Sign
d. Clinical Significance
2. Gluteus Maximus Gait
3. Weak Quadriceps Gait
4. Foot Drop (Weak Tibialis Anterior and Toe Extensor Muscles)
D. Spasticity
1. Hemiplegic Gait
2. Diplegic Gait
E. Rigidity
1. The Parkinsonian Gait (Fig. 7.5)
2. Differential diagnosis
3. Clinical Significance
F. Ataxia
1. Sensory Ataxia
2. Cerebellar Ataxia
3. Romberg Sign
a. Introduction
b. Definition of a Positive Romberg Sign
c. Romberg Test and Back Pain
G. Frontal Gait Disorder
1. Definition
2. Clinical Significance
IV. Evaluation of Gait Disorders
A. Observational Gait Analysis11,12
B. Predicting Falls
1. The Findings
a. Stops Walking When Talking
b. Timed Up-and-Go Test3
2. Clinical Significance
V. Canes
A. Length of Cane
B. Contralateral Versus Ipsilateral use of Cane
References
8 Jaundice
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. Jaundice
B. Associated Findings
1. Hepatocellular Jaundice
a. Spider Telangiectasia (Spider Angiomas)
b. Palmar Erythema
c. Gynecomastia and Diminished Body Hair
d. Dilated Abdominal Veins
e. Palpable Spleen
f. Asterixis
g. Fetor Hepaticus
2. Obstructive Jaundice: Palpable Gallbladder (Courvoisier Sign)
III. Clinical Significance
A. Detection of Jaundice
B. Hepatocellular Versus Obstructive Jaundice
C. Diagnosis of Cirrhosis
D. Detecting Large Gastroesophageal Varices in Patients with Cirrhosis
E. Detecting Hepatopulmonary Syndrome
F. Detecting Portopulmonary Hypertension
References
9
Cyanosis
I. Definitions
II. Pathogenesis
A. The Blue Color
B. Peripheral Cyanosis
III. The Finding
A. Central Cyanosis
B. Peripheral Cyanosis
C. Pseudocyanosis
D. Cyanosis and Oximetry
IV. Clinical Significance
A. Central Cyanosis
B. Peripheral Cyanosis
C. Pseudocyanosis
References
10
Anemia
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
III. Clinical Significance
References
11 Hypovolemia
I. Introduction
II. The Findings and Their Pathogenesis
III. Clinical Significance
References
12
Protein-Energy Malnutrition and Weight Loss
Protein-Energy Malnutrition
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. Arm Muscle Circumference
B. Grip Strength
III. Clinical Significance
Weight Loss
I. Introduction
II. Clinical Significance
References
13 Obesity
I. Introduction
II. The Findings and Their Significance
A. Body Mass Index (BMI)
1. The Finding
2. Clinical Significance
B. Skinfold Thickness
C. Waist-To-Hip Ratio
1. The Finding
2. Clinical Significance
3. Pathogenesis
D. Waist Circumference
E. Sagittal Diameter
References
14 Cushing Syndrome
I. Introduction
II. The Findings and Their Pathogenesis
A. Body Habitus
B. Hypertension
C. Skin Findings
D. Proximal Weakness
E. Depression
F. Pseudo-Cushing Syndrome
III. Clinical Significance
A. Diagnostic Accuracy of Findings
B. Etiology of Cushing Syndrome and Bedside Findings
References
15
Pulse Rate and Contour
Pulse Rate
I. Introduction
II. Technique
III. The Finding
IV. Clinical Significance
Abnormalities Of Pulse Contour
I. Pulsus Alternans
A. The Finding
B. Technique
C. Clinical Significance
D. Pathogenesis
II. Pulsus Bisferiens
A. The Finding
B. Technique
C. Clinical Significance
D. Pathogenesis
III. Pulsus Paradoxus
A. The Finding
B. Technique
C. Clinical Significance
1. Cardiac Tamponade
2. Cardiac Tamponade without Pulsus Paradoxus
3. Asthma
4. Pulsus Paradoxus in Other Conditions
5. Reversed Pulsus Paradoxus71
D. Pathogenesis
1. Cardiac Tamponade
2. Asthma
IV. Pulsus Parvus Et Tardus
A. The Finding and Technique
B. Clinical Significance
C. Pathogenesis
V. Dicrotic Pulse
A. The Finding and Technique
B. Clinical Significance
C. Pathogenesis
VI. Hyperkinetic Pulse
A. The Finding
B. Clinical Significance
VII. Pulses and Hypovolemic Shock
References
16
Abnormalities of Pulse Rhythm
I. Introduction
II. Technique
III. The Findings and Their Clinical Significance
A. The Pause
1. Terminology
2. Basic Mechanism of the Pause
a. Premature Beat
b. Heart Block
3. Bigeminal and Trigeminal Rhythms, and Grouped Beating
4. Atrial vs. Ventricular Premature Contractions
a. Compensatory Pause
b. Cannon A Waves
B. Regular Bradycardia
1. Sinus Bradycardia
2. Complete Heart Block
a. Changing Intensity of the First Heart Sound
b. Intermittent Appearance of Cannon A Waves in the Venous Pulse
c. Other Evidence of Atrioventricular Dissociation
3. Halved Pulse
C. Regular Tachycardia
1. Vagal Maneuvers
a. Technique
b. Response of Regular Tachycardias to Vagal Maneuvers10
2. Atrioventricular Dissociation
3. Flutter Waves in the Venous Pulse
4. Sensation of Pounding in the Neck
D. Irregular Rhythm that Varies with Respiration
E. Irregularly Irregular Rhythm (Chaotic Rhythm)
References
17
Blood Pressure
I. Introduction
II. Technique
A. Auscultatory Versus Oscillometric Methods
B. Recommended Technique9,10
C. Korotkoff Sounds (Auscultatory Method)
1. Definition of Systolic and Diastolic Blood Pressure
2. Pathogenesis
D. Measurement Using Palpation
E. Postural Vital Signs24
F. Common Errors
1. Wrong Cuff Size
2. Auscultatory Gap
3. Inappropriate Level of the Arm
4. Terminal Digit Preference (Auscultatory Method)27,28
G. Other Variables
III. The Findings and Their Clinical Significance
A. Hypertension
1. Essential Hypertension
2. Pseudohypertension and Osler Sign
B. Hypotension
C. Differences in Pressure between the Arms
1. Subclavian Steal Syndrome
2. Aortic Dissection
D. Differences in Pressure between Arms and Legs
1. Chronic Ischemia of the Lower Extremities
2. Coarctation of the Aorta
E. Abnormal Pulse Contour
F. Abnormal Pulse Pressure
1. Abnormally Small Pulse Pressure
2. Abnormally Large Pulse Pressure
G. Orthostatic Hypotension
1. Postural Vital Signs in Healthy Persons
2. Vital Signs and Hypovolemia
a. Postural Change in Pulse
b. Postural Change in Blood Pressure
c. Supine Pulse and Supine Blood Pressure
H. Blood Pressure And Impaired Consciousness
I. Capillary Fragility Test (Rumpel-Leede Test)
References
18
Temperature
I. Introduction
II. Technique
A. Site of Measurement
B. Variables affecting the Temperature Measurement
1. Eating and Smoking5,15–17
2. Tachypnea
3. Cerumen
4. Hemiparesis
5. Mucositis
III. The Finding
A. Normal Temperature and Fever
B. Fever Patterns
C. Associated Findings
1. Focal Findings
2. Relative Bradycardia
3. Anhidrosis
4. Muscle Rigidity
IV. Clinical Significance
A. DETECTION OF FEVER
B. Predictors of Bacteremia in Febrile Patients
C. Extreme Pyrexia and Hypothermia
D. Fever Patterns
E. Relative Bradycardia
F. Fever Of Unknown Origin (FUO)
References
19
Respiratory Rate and Abnormal Breathing Patterns
Respiratory Rate
I. Introduction
II. Technique
III. Finding
A. The Normal Respiratory Rate
B. Tachypnea
C. Bradypnea
IV. Clinical Significance
A. Tachypnea
B. Tachypnea and Oxygen Saturation
C. Bradypnea
Abnormal Breathing Patterns
I. Cheyne-Stokes Breathing (Periodic Breathing)
A. Introduction
B. The Finding
1. The Breathing Pattern
2. Associated Bedside Observations
C. Clinical Significance
1. Associated Conditions
2. Prognostic Importance
D. Pathogenesis
1. Enhanced Sensitivity to Carbon Dioxide
2. Circulatory Delay between Lungs and Arteries
II. Kussmaul Respiration
III. Grunting Respirations
A. Definition
B. Pathogenesis
IV. Abnormal Abdominal Movements
A. Normal Abdominal Movements
B. Abnormal Abdominal Movements
1. Asynchronous Breathing
a. Findings
b. Clinical Significance
c. Pathogenesis
2. Paradoxical Abdominal Movements
a. Finding
b. Clinical Significance
c. Pathogenesis
V. Orthopnea, Trepopnea, Platypnea, and Bendopnea
A. Orthopnea
1. Finding
2. Clinical Significance
3. Pathogenesis
B. Trepopnea
1. Finding
2. Clinical Significance
a. Unilateral Parenchymal Lung Disease76,77
b. Congestive Heart Failure from Dilated Cardiomyopathy74,75,78
c. Mediastinal or Endobronchial Tumor
d. Other Causes
C. Platypnea
1. Finding
2. Clinical Significance
a. Right-to-Left Shunting of Blood through a Patent Foramen Ovale or Atrial Septal Defect
b. Right-To-Left Shunting of Blood through Intrapulmonary Shunts
D. Bendopnea
1. Finding
2. Clinical Significance
References
20
Pulse Oximetry
I. Introduction
II. The Finding
III. Clinical Significance
A. Advantages of Pulse Oximetry
B. Limitations of Pulse Oximetry4,5,7,20
1. Dyshemoglobinemias
2. Dyes
3. Low Perfusion Pressure
4. Exaggerated Venous Pulsations
5. Ambient Light
References
21
The Pupils
Normal Pupils
I. Introduction
II. Size
III. Hippus
IV. Simple Anisocoria
V. Normal Light Reflex
A. Anatomy
B. Clinical Significance
1. Anisocoria Is Absent in Disorders of the Optic Nerve or Retina (i.e., Afferent Connections)
2. Anisocoria Indicates Asymmetric Disease of the Iris, Cranial Nerve III, or Sympathetic Nerves (Efferent Connections and ...
VI. Near Synkinesis Reaction
Abnormal Pupils
I. Relative Afferent Pupillary Defect (Marcus Gunn Pupil)
A. Introduction
B. The Finding
C. Clinical Significance
1. Optic Nerve Disease
2. Retinal Disease
3. Cataracts do not Cause the Relative Afferent Pupillary Defect17
4. Unilateral Visual Loss and the Marcus Gunn Pupil
II. Argyll Robertson Pupils
A. The Finding20,21
B. Clinical Significance
1. Associated Disorders
2. Differential Diagnosis of Light-Near Dissociation
3. Near-Light Dissociation
III. Oval Pupil
A. Evolving Third Nerve Palsy From Brain Herniation
B. Adie Tonic Pupil (See Later)
C. Previous Surgery Or Trauma To The Iris
IV. Anisocoria
A. Definition
B. Technique
C. Abnormal Pupillary Constrictor Muscle
1. Full Third Nerve Palsy: Associated Ptosis and Paralysis of Ocular Movements
a. Ipsilateral Brain Herniation (Hutchinson Pupil)34,35
b. Posterior Communicating Artery Aneurysm
2. The Tonic Pupil
a. The Finding
b. Pathogenesis
c. Clinical Significance
3. Disorders of the Iris
a. Pharmacologic Blockade of the Pupil with Topical Anticholinergic Drugs
4. The Poorly Reactive Pupil—Response to Pilocarpine
D. Abnormal Pupillary Dilator
1. Definition
2. Horner Syndrome Versus Simple Anisocoria
3. Clinical Significance of Horner Syndrome
a. Etiology
b. Localizing the Lesion
(1) Associated Findings.
(2) Facial Sweating.
(3) Distinguishing Third Nerve Lesions from First and Second Nerve Lesions: The Eyedrop Tests.
E. Intraocular Inflammation
V. Diabetes and the Pupil
VI. Pinpoint Pupils and Altered Mental Status
References
22
Diabetic Retinopathy
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. Nonproliferative Changes (Fig. 22.1)3
B. Proliferative Retinopathy
C. Macular Edema
III. Clinical Significance
A. Visual Acuity and Diabetic Retinopathy
B. Diagnostic Accuracy Of Ophthalmoscopy
C. Screening Recommendations
References
23
The Red Eye
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. Distinguishing Serious from Benign Disease
1. Visual Acuity
2. Pupillary Abnormalities
3. Pupil Constriction Tests
a. Direct Photophobia Test
b. Indirect (Consensual) Photophobia Test
c. Finger-to-Nose Convergence Test
B. Distinguishing Bacterial Conjunctivitis from Nonbacterial Causes
1. Normal Conjunctival Anatomy
2. Papillary Conjunctivitis vs. Follicular Conjunctivitis
III. Clinical Significance
A. Distinguishing Serious from Benign Disease
B. Distinguishing Bacterial Conjunctivitis from Nonbacterial Causes
1. Individual Findings
2. Combined Findings
References
24
Hearing
I. Introduction
II. Technique
A. Whispered Voice Test
B. Finger Rub Test
C. Ticking Watch Test
D. Tuning Fork Tests
1. Introduction
2. The Frequency of the Tuning Fork
3. Method of Striking the Fork
4. Weber Test
5. Rinne Test
III. Clinical Significance
A. Patient’s Perceptions of Hearing Loss
B. Whispered Voice Test
C. Finger Rub Test
D. Ticking Watch Test
E. Tuning Fork Tests
References
25
Thyroid and Its Disorders
Goiter
I. Introduction
II. Technique
A. Normal Thyroid3
B. Examination For Goiter
1. Inspection
2. Palpation
3. Observing the Patient Swallow9
III. The Findings
A. Cervical Goiter
B. Substernal and Retroclavicular Goiters
C. Thyroglossal Cyst20
D. Pseudogoiter
E. The Delphian Node
IV. Clinical Significance
A. Detecting Goiter
B. Etiology of Goiter
Thyroid Nodules
I. Introduction39
II. Occult Nodules (“Incidentalomas”)
III. Clinical Significance
Hypothyroidism (Myxedema)
I. Introduction
II. Findings and Their Pathogenesis
A. Skin And Soft Tissue46,47
B. The Achilles Reflex
C. Hypothyroid Speech
D. Obesity
III. Clinical Significance
Hyperthyroidism
I. Introduction
II. Findings and Their Pathogenesis
A. The Thyroid
B. Eye Findings
1. Lid Lag
2. Lid Retraction
3. Graves Ophthalmopathy
C. Cardiovascular Findings
D. Skin Findings46,47
E. Neuromuscular Findings
III. Clinical Significance
References
26
Meninges
I. The Findings
A. Neck Stiffness
B. Kernig Sign
C. Brudzinski Sign
D. Jolt Accentuation Headache
II. Pathogenesis of Meningeal Signs
III. Clinical Significance
A. Acute Bacterial Meningitis
B. Subarachnoid Hemorrhage and Intracerebral Hemorrhage
References
27
Peripheral Lymphadenopathy
I. Introduction
II. Anatomy and Pathogenesis
A. Introduction
B. Regional Lymph Node Groups
1. Cervical Nodes
2. Supraclavicular Nodes
3. Epitrochlear Nodes
4. Axillary Nodes
5. Inguinal Nodes
III. The Finding
A. Describing Adenopathy
B. Generalized Lymphadenopathy
C. “Glandular” Syndromes
IV. Clinical Significance
A. Definition of Disease
B. Extranodal Mimics of Lymph Nodes
C. Individual Findings
D. Combined Findings
E. Lymph Node Syndromes
1. Supraclavicular Adenopathy
2. Sore Throat and Adenopathy
3. Epitrochlear Adenopathy
4. Identifying HIV Infection in Developing Nations
5. Fever of Unknown Origin (FUO)
6. Staging Patients with Known Cancer
7. Ulceroglandular and Oculoglandular Syndromes
References
28
Inspection of the Chest
I. Clubbing (Acropachy, Hippocratic fingers)
A. Introduction
B. The Finding
1. Interphalangeal Depth Ratio
2. Hyponychial Angle
3. Schamroth Sign
4. Other Definitions
C. Clinical Significance
1. Etiology
2. Relationship of Clubbing to Hypertrophic Osteoarthropathy
3. Clubbing and Cystic Fibrosis
4. Clubbing and Endocarditis
5. Clubbing and Hepatopulmonary Syndrome
D. Pathogenesis
II. Barrel Chest
A. The Finding
B. Clinical Significance
III. Pursed Lip Breathing
A. The Finding
B. Clinical Significance
IV. Accessory Muscle Use
A. The Finding
B. Pathogenesis
C. Clinical Significance
V. Chest Wall Retractions and Nasal Flaring
A. The Finding
B. Clinical Significance
VI. Intensity of Breathing Sounds (Inspiratory White Noise Noisy Breathing)
A. The Finding
B. Pathogenesis
C. Clinical Significance
References
29
Palpation and Percussion of the Chest
Palpation
I. Introduction
II. Tactile Fremitus
A. The Finding
B. Technique
C. Finding
III. Clinical Significance
A. Chest Expansion
B. Tactile Fremitus
C. Chest Wall Tenderness
Percussion
I. Introduction
II. Technique
A. Direct vs. Indirect Method
B. Types of Percussion
1. Comparative Percussion
2. Topographic Percussion
3. Auscultatory Percussion
C. The Percussion Blow
1. Force
2. Rapid Withdrawal of Plexor
III. The Finding
A. Percussion Sounds
B. Sense of Resistance
C. Glossary of Additional Percussion Terms
1. Skodaic Resonance
3. Metallic Resonance (Amphoric Resonance Coin Test)
4. Krönig Isthmus
5. Cracked-Pot Resonance
IV. Pathogenesis
A. Topographic Percussion vs. Cage Resonance Theory
In contrast, considerable evidence supports the cage resonance theory.
1. Analysis of Sound Recordings
2. Condition and State of the Body Wall
3. The Strength of the Percussion Blow
B. Auscultatory Percussion
V. Clinical Significance
A. Comparative Percussion
B. Topographic Percussion of the Diaphragm
C. Auscultatory Percussion
References
30
Auscultation of the Lungs
I. Breath Sounds
A. Finding
1. Vesicular Versus Bronchial Breath Sounds
2. Breath Sound Score
B. Pathogenesis
1. Vesicular Sounds
a. Origin
b. Intensity
2. Bronchial Sounds
C. Clinical Significance
1. Breath Sound Intensity
2. Asymmetric Breath Sounds After Intubation
3. Bronchial Breath Sounds
II. Vocal Resonance
A. The Finding
1. Bronchophony
2. Pectoriloquy
3. Egophony
B. Pathogenesis
C. Clinical Significance
III. Adventitious Sounds
A. Introduction
B. The Finding
1. Crackles
2. Wheezes and Rhonchi
3. Stridor
4. Pleural Rub
5. Inspiratory Squawk
C. Pathogenesis
1. Crackles50,59,66,72–74
2. Wheezes
D. Clinical Significance
1. Crackles
a. Normal Persons
b. Crackles and Disease
(1) Presence of Crackles.
(2) Characteristics of Crackles.68,93,97–99
2. Wheezes
a. Presence of Wheezes
b. Characteristics of Wheezing
3. Stridor
4. Pleural Rub
5. Inspiratory Squawk
References
31
Ancillary Tests
I. Forced Expiratory Time
A. Technique
B. Pathogenesis
C. Clinical Significance
II. Blow-Out-The-Match Test
A. Technique
B. Clinical Significance
References
32
Pneumonia
I. Introduction
II. Clinical Significance
A. Individual Findings
B. Laennec Vs. Modern studies
C. Combined Findings
D. Pneumonia and Prognosis
E. Hospital Course
References
33
Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. Inspection
1. Inspiratory Recession of Supraclavicular Fossa and Intercostal Spaces
2. Costal Paradox (Hoover sign, Costal Margin Paradox)
3. Leaning Forward on Arms Propped up on Knees9,10
B. Palpation: Laryngeal Height And Descent
III. Clinical Significance
A. Individual Findings
B. Combined Findings
C. Prognosis In COPD Exacerbation (BAP-65 Score)
References
34
Pulmonary Embolism
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
III. Clinical Significance
A. Individual Findings
B. Combining Findings To Determine Clinical Probability Of Embolism
References
35
Pleural Effusion
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
III. Clinical Significance
References
36
Inspection of the Neck Veins
I. Introduction
II. Venous Pressure
A. Definitions
1. Central Venous Pressure
2. Physiologic Zero Point
3. External Reference Point
a. Sternal Angle
b. Phlebostatic Axis
c. Relative Merits of Sternal Angle and Phlebostatic Axis
B. Elevated Venous Pressure
1. Technique
2. External vs. Internal Jugular Veins
3. Definition of Elevated CVP
C. Bedside Estimates of Venous Pressure vs. Catheter Measurements
1. Diagnostic Accuracy*
2. Why Clinicians Underestimate Measured Values
D. Clinical Significance of Elevated Venous Pressure
1. Differential Diagnosis of Ascites and Edema
2. Elevated Venous Pressure and Left Heart Disease
3. Elevated Venous Pressure and Pulmonary Hypertension
4. Elevated Venous Pressure during Preoperative Consultation
5. Elevated Venous Pressure and Pericardial Disease
6. Unilateral Elevation of Venous Pressure
E. Clinical Significance of Low Estimated Venous Pressure
F. Using Hand Veins to Determine Central Venous Pressure
III. Abdominojugular Test
A. The Finding
B. Clinical Significance
IV. Kussmaul Sign
A. Pathogenesis of Elevated Venous Pressure, Abdominojugular Test, and Kussmaul Sign
B. Clinical Significance of Kussmaul Sign
V. Venous Waveforms
A. Identifying the Internal Jugular Vein
B. Components of Venous Waveforms
C. Timing The X' and Y Descents
1. Using Heart Tones
2. Using the Carotid Artery
D. Clinical Significance
1. Abnormal Descents
2. Abnormally Prominent Outward Waves
a. Giant A Waves (Abrupt Presystolic Outward Waves)
b. Systolic Waves
(1). Tricuspid Regurgitation.
(2). Cannon A Waves.
(a). Regular Cannon A Waves.
(b). Intermittent cannon A waves.
References
37
Percussion of the Heart
I. Introduction
II. Clinical Significance
References
38
Palpation of the Heart
I. Introduction
II. Technique
A. Patient Position
B. Location of Abnormal Movements
1. Apex Beat
2. Left Lower Sternal Area (Fourth Intercostal Space Near Left Edge of Sternum)
3. Left Base (Second Intercostal Space Near the Left Sternum)
4. Right Base (Second Intercostal Space Near Right Edge of Sternum) and Sternoclavicular Joint
C. Making Precordial Movements more Conspicuous
III. The Findings
A. Normal
B. Hyperkinetic
C. Sustained
D. Retracting
E. Heaves, Lifts, and Thrusts
IV. Clinical Significance
A. Apex Beat
1. Location
2. Diameter of the Apical Impulse
3. Abnormal Movements
a. Hyperkinetic Apical Movements
b. Sustained Apical Movements
c. Retracting Apical Impulse
(1). Constrictive Pericarditis.
(2). Tricuspid Regurgitation.
B. Left Lower Parasternal Movements
1. Hyperkinetic Movements
2. Sustained Movements
a. Right Ventricle
b. Left Atrium and Mitral Regurgitation
C. Aneurysms
D. Diffuse Precordial Movements
E. Right Lower Parasternal Movements
F. Palpable P2
G. Palpable Third and Fourth Heart Sounds
References
39
Auscultation of the Heart: General Principles
I. Characteristics of Heart Sounds and Murmurs
II. The Stethoscope
A. Bell and Diaphragm
B. Performance of Different Stethoscope Models
III. Use of the Stethoscope
A. Examination Room
B. Bell Pressure
C. Patient Position
D. Order of Examination
E. Describing the Location of Sounds
F. Technique of Focusing
G. Identifying Systole and Diastole
1. Systole is Shorter than Diastole
2. Characteristics of the First and Second Heart Sounds
3. Carotid Impulse
References
40
The First and Second Heart Sounds
Anchor 2
The First Heart Sound (S1)
I. The Finding
II. Pathogenesis
A. Cause of S1
B. Intensity of S1
1. Ventricular Contractility
2. Position of the Valve Leaflets at Onset of Ventricular Systole
III. Clinical Significance
A. Loud S1
1. Vigorous Ventricular Contractions
2. Delayed Closure of the Mitral Valve
a. Prolapsed Mitral Valve
b. Mitral Stenosis
c. Left Atrial Myxoma
B. Faint Or Absent S1
1. Weak Ventricular Contractions (Low dP/dT)
2. Early Closure of the Mitral Valve
a. Long PR Interval (>0.20 seconds)
b. Acute Aortic Regurgitation
C. Varying Intensity of S1
D. Prominent Splitting of S1
The Second Heart Sound (S2)
I. Introduction
II. Normal Splitting of S2
A. The Finding
B. Location Of Sound
C. Technique
D. Physiology Of Splitting
III. Abnormal Splitting of S2
A. The Finding
1. Wide Physiologic Splitting
2. Wide Fixed Splitting
3. Paradoxic Splitting (Reversed Splitting)
B. Screening For Abnormal Splitting Of S2
C. Clinical Significance And Pathogenesis
1. Wide Physiologic Splitting
2. Wide and Fixed Splitting
3. Paradoxic Splitting
D. S2 Splitting vs. Other Double Sounds40
1. S2-Opening Snap
2. S2-Pericardial Knock
3. S2-Third Heart Sound
4. Late Systolic Click-S2
IV. Intensity of S2
References
41
The Third and Fourth Heart Sounds
I. Introduction
II. Definitions
A. Gallop
B. Third Heart Sound (S3)
C. Fourth Heart Sound (S4)
D. Summation Gallop
E. Quadruple Rhythm
III. Technique
A. Location Of Sound And Use Of Stethoscope
B. Right Versus Left Ventricular Gallops
C. Distinguishing the S4-S1 Sound From Other Sounds
1. Use of the Bell
2. Location
3. Effect of Respiration
4. Palpation
IV. Pathogenesis
A. Normal Ventricular Filling Curves
B. Ventricular Filling And Sound
C. The Third Heart Sound (S3)
1. Congestive Heart Failure
2. Regurgitation and Shunts
D. The Fourth Heart Sound (S4)
E. Summation Gallop And Quadruple Rhythm
F. Physiologic S3
V. Clinical Significance
A. The Third Heart Sound
1. Congestive Heart Failure
2. Valvular Heart Disease
3. Patients with Acute Chest Pain
4. Preoperative Consultation
B. The Fourth Heart Sound
References
42
Miscellaneous Heart Sounds
Ejection Sounds
I. The Finding and Pathogenesis
II. Clinical Significance
Mid-To-LATE SYSTOLIC CLICKS
I. The Finding and Pathogenesis
II. Clinical Significance
Opening Snap
I. The Finding and Pathogenesis
II. Clinical Significance
Pericardial Knock
Tumor Plop
Prosthetic Heart Sounds
I. Introduction
II. Principles
A. OPENING AND CLOSING SOUNDS
1. Caged-Ball Valves
2. Tilting-Disc Valves
B. Murmurs
References
43
Heart Murmurs: General Principles
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. Basic Classification Of Murmurs
1. Systolic Murmurs
a. Etiology
(1) Abnormal Flow over an Outflow Tract or Semilunar Valve.
(2) Regurgitation from a Ventricle into a Low Pressure Chamber.
b. Older Classifications of Systolic Murmurs: “Ejection” and “Regurgitation” Murmurs
2. Diastolic Murmurs
3. Continuous Murmurs
B. Location On The Chest Wall
C. Specific Timing and Quality of Murmurs Using Onomatopoeia
D. Grading The Intensity of Murmurs
III. Clinical Significance
A. Detecting Valvular Heart Disease
B. Differential Diagnosis of Systolic Murmurs
1. The Functional Murmur
2. Identifying the Cause of Systolic Murmurs
a. Distribution of Murmur (Murmur Pattern, see Fig. 43.1)
b. Intensity of S1 and S2
c. Timing, Radiation, and Quality of Sound (see also the Section on Specific Timing and Quality of Murmurs using Onomatopoe ...
d. Intensity of Systolic Murmur During Irregular Rhythms
e. Maneuvers
(1) Respiration.
(2) Maneuvers Changing Venous Return.
(3) Maneuvers Changing Systemic Vascular Resistance (or Afterload).
REFERENCES
44
Aortic Stenosis
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. The Murmur
B. Associated Cardiac Signs
III. Clinical Significance
A. Detecting Aortic Stenosis
B. Severity Of Aortic Stenosis
1. Individual Findings
2. Why Positive LRs Are So Low
3. Combined Findings
References
45
Aortic Regurgitation
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. The Murmur(s)
1. Early Diastolic Murmur of Regurgitation
2. Systolic Aortic Flow Murmur
3. Apical Diastolic Rumble: Austin Flint Murmur
a. Definition
b. Pathogenesis
B. Water Hammer Pulse and Increased Pulse Pressure
C. Abnormal Pulsations of Other Structures: The Aortic Regurgitation Eponyms
D. Hill Test
E. Auscultation Over Arteries
1. Pistol Shot Sound
a. Definition
b. Pathogenesis
2. Duroziez Murmur or Sign15,28,33–36
a. Definition
b. Pathogenesis
III. Clinical Significance
A. Detecting Aortic Insufficiency
B. Distinguishing Aortic Valve Disease From Aortic Root Disease
C. Distinguishing Aortic Regurgitation From Pulmonary Regurgitation
D. Severity of Aortic Regurgitation
1. The Diastolic Murmur
2. Blood Pressure
3. Hill Test
4. Other Signs
E. Acute Aortic Regurgitation
F. Distinguishing the Austin Flint Murmur from Mitral Stenosis
References
46
Miscellaneous Heart Murmurs
Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
I. The Murmur
II. Associated Findings
Mitral Regurgitation
I. The Finding
A. The Murmur
B. Associated Findings
II. Clinical Significance
A. Detecting Mitral Regurgitation
B. Severity Of Mitral Regurgitation
1. The Murmur
2. Other Findings
C. Distinguishing Acute From Chronic Mitral Regurgitation
D. Papillary Muscle Dysfunction
Mitral Valve Prolapse
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. The Murmur
B. The Clicks
C. Response Of Murmurs And Clicks To Maneuvers
III. Clinical Significance. Detection of Mitral Valve Prolapse
Tricuspid Regurgitation
I. The Findings
A. The Murmur
1. High-Pressure Tricuspid Regurgitation
2. Low-Pressure Tricuspid Regurgitation
B. Other Findings
1. High-Pressure Tricuspid Regurgitation
2. Low-Pressure Tricuspid Regurgitation
C. Estimating Venous Pressure In Tricuspid Regurgitation
II. Clinical Significance
A. Detecting Tricuspid Regurgitation
B. Severity Of Tricuspid Regurgitation
Pulmonic Regurgitation
I. The Finding
A. High-Pressure Pulmonic Regurgitation
B. Low-Pressure Pulmonic Regurgitation
II. Clinical Significance
A. Detecting Pulmonic Regurgitation
B. Detecting Pulmonary Hypertension
C. Hemodialysis Patients
Mitral Stenosis
I. The Findings
A. The Murmur
B. Other Cardiac Findings
II. Clinical Significance
A. The Murmur
B. Other Cardiac Findings
Arteriovenous Fistulae: The Hemodialysis Fistula
References
47
Disorders of the Pericardium
Pericarditis and The Pericardial Rub
I. Introduction
II. The Finding
III. Clinical Significance
A. The Rub And Pericarditis
B. Pericarditis and Fever
C. The Rub and Pericardial Effusion
D. The Rub and Neoplastic Disease
E. The Rub and Myocardial Infarction
Cardiac Tamponade
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
Constrictive Pericarditis
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. Neck Veins
B. Kussmaul Sign
C. Pericardial Knock
D. Other Findings
References
48
Congestive Heart Failure
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. Bendopnea Test
1. The Finding
2. Pathogenesis of Bendopnea
B. The Valsalva Response
1. Introduction
2. Technique
3. The Normal Valsalva Response
4. The Abnormal Valsalva Response (Fig. 48.1)
5. Pathogenesis of the Abnormal Valsalva Response
III. Clinical Significance
A. Detecting Elevated Left Heart Filling Pressure
B. Detecting Depressed Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction
C. Proportional Pulse Pressure
D. Physical Signs And Consensus Diagnosis Of Congestive Heart Failure
E. Prognosis In Heart Failure
References
49
Coronary Artery Disease
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. Introduction
B. Description Of Chest Pain
C. Hand Gestures During Description Of Chest Pain
D. Physical Findings
1. Earlobe Crease
2. Arcus Senilis
3. Ankle-to-Arm Pressure Index
E. GI Cocktail
III. Clinical Significance
A. Diagnosing Coronary Artery Disease
B. Diagnosing Myocardial Infarction
C. Risk Factors and Coronary Disease
D. GI Cocktail
References
50
Inspection of the Abdomen
Ecchymosis of the Abdominal Wall
I. The Findings
II. Pathogenesis
Sister Mary Joseph Nodule
I. The Finding
II. Pathogenesis
References
51
Palpation and Percussion of the Abdomen
I. Introductory Comments on Technique
II. Liver
A. Liver Span
1. The Finding
2. Clinical Significance
B. Palpable Liver Edge
1. The Finding
2. Clinical Significance
a. Detection of Hepatomegaly
b. Palpable Liver and Other Disorders
C. Auscultatory Percussion – Scratch Test
1. The Finding
2. Clinical Significance
D. Pulsatile Liver
III. The Spleen
A. Palpable Spleen
1. The Finding
2. Clinical Significance
a. Detection of Splenomegaly
b. Etiology of Splenomegaly
c. Palpable Spleen and Other Disorders
B. Splenic Percussion Signs
1. The Findings
a. Spleen Percussion Sign
b. Nixon Method
c. Traube Space Dullness
2. Clinical Significance
IV. Gallbladder: Courvoisier Sign
A. The Finding
B. Clinical Significance
C. Pathogenesis
V. Bladder Volume
VI. Ascites
A. The Findings
B. Pathogenesis
C. Clinical Significance
VII. Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm
A. Introduction
B. The Finding
C. Clinical Significance
References
52
Abdominal Pain and Tenderness
Acute Abdominal Pain
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. Peritonitis
1. Guarding and Rigidity
2. Rebound Tenderness
3. Percussion Tenderness
4. Cough Test
5. Abdominal Wall Tenderness Test
B. Appendicitis
1. McBurney Point Tenderness
2. Rovsing Sign (Indirect Tenderness)
3. Rectal Tenderness
4. Psoas Sign
5. Obturator Sign
C. Cholecystitis and Murphy Sign
D. Small Bowel Obstruction
III. Clinical Significance
A. Peritonitis
B. Special Tests for Appendicitis
1. Individual Findings
2. Combination of Findings: The Alvarado Score
C. Cholecystitis
D. Small Bowel Obstruction
E. Diverticulitis
F. Renal Colic
Chronic Abdominal Pain
References
53
Auscultation of the Abdomen
Abdominal Bruits
I. The Finding
II. Clinical Significance
A. Bruits In Healthy Persons
B. Bruits In Renovascular Hypertension
C. Other Disorders
Hepatic Rub
Bowel Sounds
I. The Finding
II. Clinical Significance
References
54
Peripheral Vascular Disease
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. Appearance of the Foot
B. Pulses
C. Bruits
D. Ancillary Tests
1. Venous Filling Time
2. Capillary Refill Time
3. Buerger Test
III. Clinical Significance
A. Diagnosis Of Peripheral Vascular Disease
B. Distribution of Peripheral Vascular Disease
C. Complications of Arterial Puncture
D. Detecting Hypoperfusion in Intensive Care Unit (ICU)
References
55
The Diabetic Foot
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. Foot Ulceration
B. Diabetic Neuropathy and Semmes-Weinstein Monofilaments
C. Charcot Joint
D. Osteomyelitis
III. Clinical Significance
A. The Semmes-Weinstein Monofilament
B. Osteomyelitis
C. Predictors of Nonhealing Wounds
References
56
Edema and Deep Vein Thrombosis
EDEMA
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
III. Clinical Significance
A. Pitting Edema
B. Lymphedema
Deep Vein Thrombosis
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. Inspection and Palpation
B. Homans Sign
C. Pseudothrombophlebitis
III. Clinical Significance
A. Individual Findings
B. Combined Findings
C. Diagnosing Upper Extremity Deep Vein Thrombosis
References
57
Examination of the Musculoskeletal System
The Shoulder
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. Impingement Signs
B. Yergason Sign
C. Speed Test
D. Muscle Atrophy
E. Muscle Testing
F. Dropped Arm Test
G. Palpating Rotator Cuff Tears
H. Crossed Body Adduction Test (SCARF TEST)
III. Clinical Significance
A. Acromioclavicular Joint Pain
B. Rotator Cuff Tendonitis
C. Rotator Cuff Tears
1. Individual Findings
2. Combined Findings
The Hip
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
III. Clinical Significance
The Knee
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. Ottawa Rules For Knee Fracture
B. Tests of Ligament Injuries
1. Anterior Cruciate Ligament
2. Posterior Cruciate Ligament
3. Collateral Ligaments
C. Tests of Meniscal Injuries: The Mcmurray Test
III. Clinical Significance
A. Detecting Osteoarthritis
B. Detecting Knee Fracture
C. Detecting Ligament and Meniscal Injuries
1. Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury
2. Posterior Cruciate Tear
3. Meniscal Injury
4. Collateral Ligaments
5. Variables Affecting Sensitivity of Signs
6. Predicting the Need for Knee Surgery
The Ankle
I. Introduction
II. The Finding
A. Ottawa Ankle And Midfoot Rules
B. Achilles Tendon Rupture
III. Clinical Significance
A. Ankle and Midfoot Fractures
References
58
Visual Field Testing
I. Introduction
II. Definitions
III. The Anatomy of the Visual Pathways
IV. Technique
A. Static Technique
B. Kinetic Technique
V. The Findings
A. Anterior or Prechiasmal Defects
B. Chiasmal Defects
C. Postchiasmal Defects
VI. Clinical Significance
A. Etiology
B. Diagnostic Accuracy
C. Differential Diagnosis Of Postchiasmal Defects
D. Improving Detection of Visual Field Defects
References
59
Nerves of the Eye Muscles (III, IV, and VI): Approach to Diplopia
Diplopia
I. Introduction
II. Definitions
III. Technique
A. General Approach
B. Identifying the Weak Muscle
a. Simple Inspection of the Eyes
b. The Affected Eye is the One with the Most Peripheral Image
c. The Cover/Uncover Test
IV. Clinical Significance
A. Monocular Diplopia
B. Binocular Diplopia
1. Etiology
2. Weak Muscles and Their Clinical Significance
a. Weak Superior Rectus Muscle
b. Weak Inferior Rectus Muscle
(1) Thyroid Myopathy.
(2) Orbital Fracture.
c. Weak Medial Rectus
(1) Internuclear Ophthalmoplegia15–17
(2) Myasthenia Gravis.
d. Weak Lateral Rectus
e. Weak Superior Oblique
f. Weak Inferior Oblique
3. Skew Deviation
C. Ice Pack Test for Myasthenia Gravis
D. Combinations of Findings to Diagnose Binocular Diplopia
Disorders of Cranial Nerves III, IV, and VI
I. Introduction
II. Rules For Diagnosing Ischemic Infarcts
III. Oculomotor Nerve (Cranial Nerve III)
A. The Finding
B. Clinical Significance
1. Pupil-Sparing Rule52,53
2. Clinical Syndromes
a. Ipsilateral Brainstem Injury
b. Injury to the Nerve in the Subarachnoid Space
c. Ipsilateral Cavernous Sinus or Orbit Injury
d. Ischemic Infarcts
IV. Trochlear Nerve (Cranial Nerve IV)
A. The Finding
1. Isolated IV Palsy
2. Combined III and IV Palsy
B. Clinical Significance
1. Head Position
2. Clinical Syndromes
a. Contralateral Midbrain Injury
b. Ipsilateral Cavernous Sinus or Orbit Injury
c. Ischemic Infarcts
V. Abducens Nerve (Cranial Nerve VI)
A. The Finding
B. Clinical Significance
1. Ipsilateral Pons Injury
2. Injury to the Nerve in the Subarachnoid Space
3. Injury at the Petrous Apex
4. Ipsilateral Cavernous Sinus or Orbit Injury
5. Ischemic infarcts
References
60
Miscellaneous Cranial Nerves
Olfactory Nerve (I)
I. Technique
II. Clinical Significance
A. Anosmia
B. Olfactory Dysfunction
Trigeminal Nerve (V)
I. Introduction
II. The Finding
A. Motor Weakness
B. Sensory Loss
C. Corneal Reflex
III. Clinical Significance
A. Motor Weakness
B. Sensory Loss
1. Sensory Loss of Face and Body
2. Sensory Loss Isolated to the Face
C. Abnormal Corneal Reflex
D. Herpes Zoster Infection and the Nasociliary Branch of the Trigeminal Nerve (“Hutchinson Sign”)
Facial Nerve (VII)
I. The Finding
II. Clinical Significance
A. Central Versus Peripheral Facial Weakness
2. Movements Affected
B. Peripheral Nerve Lesions
1. Etiology
2. Associated Findings
3. Topographic Diagnosis
4. Complications of Bell Palsy29,31,36,37
a. Associated Movements
b. Contracture
c. Crocodile Tears
Glossopharyngeal (IX) and Vagus (X) Nerves
I. Finding
II. Clinical Significance
A. Bilateral Cerebral Hemispheric Lesions: Pseudobulbar Palsy
B. Bedside Predictors of Risk of Aspiration After Stroke
C. Lesions of Ipsilateral Brainstem or Peripheral Nerve
Spinal Accessory Nerve (XI)
I. Finding
II. Clinical Significance
A. Cerebral Hemisphere
B. Brainstem or High Cervical Spinal Cord
C. Peripheral Nerve
Hypoglossal Nerve (XII)
I. Finding
II. Clinical Significance
A. Cerebral Hemisphere
B. Brainstem
C. Peripheral Nerve
References
61
Examination of the Motor System: Approach to Weakness
The Motor Examination
I. Muscle Strength
A. Definitions
B. The Findings
1. Technique
2. Grading Muscle Strength
3. Special Tests for Unilateral Cerebral Lesions
C. Clinical Significance
II. Atrophy And Hypertrophy
A. ATROPHY
1. Definition
2. Technique
3. Clinical Significance
B. Hypertrophy
III. Fasciculations
A. Definition
B. Clinical Significance
IV. Muscle Tone
A. Increased Muscle Tone
1. Spasticity
a. Definition  
b. Characteristic Postures
c. Clasp-Knife Phenomenon
d. Relationship of Spasticity to Weakness
2. Rigidity
a. Definition
b. Distinguishing Spasticity from Rigidity
c. Clinical Significance
3. Paratonia
a. Definition
b. Technique
c. Clinical Significance
B. Decreased Muscle Tone: Hypotonia (Flaccidity)
1. Definition
2. Technique
3. Clinical Significance
4. Pathogenesis
V. Muscle Percussion
A. Percussion Myotonia
1. The Finding
2. Clinical Significance
B. Myoedema
1. The Finding
2. Clinical Significance
Approach to Weakness
I. Cause of Weakness
II. The Findings
A. Upper vs. Lower Motor Neuron Lesions
1. Associated Findings in the Weak Limb (Table 61.2)
2. Localizing Signs of Upper Motor Neuron Weakness
3. Babinski Sign
4. Distribution of Weakness
a. Limbs Affected
b. Movement vs. Muscle
B. The Diagnostic Process
1. Upper Motor Neuron Weakness
2. Lower Motor Neuron Weakness
3. Combined Upper and Lower Motor Neuron Weakness
a. Myelopathy
b. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
III. Clinical Significance
A. Clinical Syndromes are Often Incomplete
B. Proximal Weakness Indicates Muscle Disease
C. The Special Tests for Cerebral Hemispheric Lesions are Accurate
D. Additional Signs Distinguish Anterior from Posterior Circulation Strokes
E. Diagnosis of Peripheral Nerve Disorders
References
62
Examination of the Sensory System
Simple Sensations
I. Definitions
II. Technique
A. Touch
B. Pain And Temperature
C. Vibration
III. Clinical Significance
A. Touch, Pain, And Temperature Sensation
B. Vibratory Sensation
C. Hyperpathia And Allodynia Are Nonspecific Findings
Proprioception
I. Definition
II. Technique
III. Clinical Significance
Cortical Sensations
I. Definition
II. Technique
A. Two-Point Discrimination
B. Tactile Recognition (Stereognosis)
C. Graphesthesia
D. Localization
E. Bilateral Simultaneous Tactile Stimulation
F. Appreciation Of Weights
III. Clinical Significance
Dermatomes
I. Definition
II. Derivation of the Dermatomal Maps
III. Technique
IV. Clinical Significance
A. The Sensory Level In Spinal Cord Disease
B. Dermatomal Loss In Radiculopathy
Sensory Syndromes
I. Technique
A. Does The Sensory Loss Involve Both Sides Of The Body?
B. Is There A Sensory Level?
C. Is There Sensory Dissociation?
D. Is There Sensory Loss On The Face?
E. Are There Associated Neurologic Signs?
II. Definition of the Sensory Syndromes
A. Polyneuropathy
B. Spinal Cord Syndromes
1. Complete Spinal Cord Lesion
2. Incomplete Spinal Cord Lesions54
a. Anterior Cord Syndrome
b. Brown-Séquard Syndrome Syndrome
c. Central Cord Syndrome
C. Lateral Medullary Infarction (Wallenberg Syndrome)
D. Thalamic Disease
E. Cerebral Hemispheric Disease
References
63
Examination of the Reflexes
Reflex Hammers
I. Types Of Reflex Hammers
A. Taylor Hammer
B. Queen Square Hammer
C. Babinski Hammer (Babinski/Rabiner Hammer)
D. Troemner Hammer
II. Clinical Significance
Muscle Stretch Reflexes
I. Definition
II. Technique
A. Method
B. Grading Reflex Amplitude
C. Reinforcement: The Jendrassik Maneuver
III. Clinical Significance
A. Amplitude Of Reflex
B. Localizing Value Of Diminished Reflexes
C. Ankle Jerk And Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy
D. Additional Findings In The Hyperreflexic Patient
1. Finger Flexion Reflexes
2. Jaw Jerk
3. Clonus
4. Irradiation of Reflexes
a. Crossed Adductor Reflex
b. Inverted Supinator Reflex
c. Inverted Knee Jerk
Cutaneous Reflexes (Superficial Reflexes)
I. Definition
II. Superficial Abdominal Reflex (T6 To T11)
A. Technique
B. Clinical Significance
III. Bulbocavernosus Reflex (S2 To S4)
A. Technique
B. Clinical Significance
Babinski Response
I. Definition
II. Pathogenesis
III. Technique
A. Eliciting The Response
B. Interpreting The Response
IV. Clinical Significance
A. Associated Conditions
B. False-Negative Response
C. Babinski Response And Neck Pain
Primitive Reflexes
I. Definition
II. Technique
A. Palmomental Reflex
B. Glabellar Reflex
C. Grasp Reflex
III. Clinical Significance
A. General Comments
B. Palmomental Reflex
C. Glabellar Reflex
D. Grasp Reflex
E. Primitive Reflexes and Normal Aging
References
64
Disorders of the Nerve Roots, Plexuses, and Peripheral Nerves
I. Introduction
II. The Arm
A. Introduction
B. Neurologic Findings
1. Motor
a. Radiculopathy
b. Brachial Plexopathy
c. Peripheral Nerve Disorders
2. Sensory Findings
3. Reflexes
4. Provocative Tests
C. Additional Diagnostic Clues
1. The Clavicle
2. Horner Syndrome (see Chapter 21)
D. Clinical Significance
1. Diagnosing Cervical Radiculopathy
2. Localizing Cervical Radiculopathy
3. Plexopathy in Cancer Patients
4. Peripheral Nerve Injury: Diagnosis of Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
III. The Leg
A. Introduction
B. Neurologic Findings
1. Motor
a. Radiculopathy
b. Lumbosacral Plexopathy
c. Peripheral Nerve Disorders
2. Sensory Findings
3. Reflexes
4. Provocative Tests
C. Clinical Significance
1. Lumbosacral Radiculopathy
2. Lumbosacral Plexopathy
a. Cancer Patients
b. Diabetic Amyotrophy.82–87
References
65
Coordination and Cerebellar Testing
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. Ataxia
1. Finger-Nose-Finger Test
2. Heel-Knee-Shin Test
3. Rapid Alternating Movements
B. Nystagmus
1. Definition
2. Patterns of Nystagmus
a. Cerebellar Nystagmus
b. Nystagmus and Non-Cerebellar Disorders
3. Effect of Retinal Fixation
C. Hypotonia (see Chapter 61)
D. Dysarthria
III. Clinical Significance
A. Individual Findings
1. Ataxia
2. Nystagmus
3. Dysarthria
B. Cerebellar Syndromes
1. Cerebellar Hemisphere Syndrome
a. Cerebellar Findings
b. Associated Findings
2. Anterior Cerebellar Degeneration (Rostral Vermis Syndrome)18
3. Pancerebellar Syndrome
4. Cerebellar Infarction
References
66
Tremor and Parkinson Disease
I. Introduction
II. The Finding
A. Tremor
B. Bradykinesia
C. Atypical Features Of Parkinson Disease
D. Tandem Gait Testing (see also Chapter 7)
E. Applause Sign (Clapping Test)
III. Clinical Significance: Diagnosing Parkinson Disease
References
67
Hemorrhagic Versus Ischemic Stroke
I. Introduction
II. Findings
III. Clinical Significance
A. Symptoms
B. Individual Physical Findings
C. Combined Findings (Siriraj Stroke Score)
References
68
Acute Vertigo and Imbalance
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. The Vestibuloocular Reflex
B. Head Impulse Test (Fig. 68.2)
C. Skew Deviation
D. Abnormal Visual Tracking: Saccadic Pursuit
E. Direction-Changing Nystagmus (Fig. 68.3)
III. Clinical Significance
A. Individual Findings
B. Combined Findings
References
69
Examination of Nonorganic Neurologic Disorders
I. Traditional Physical Findings of Nonorganic Disease
A. Findings Whose Severity Fluctuates During The Examination
B. Findings That Defy Neuroanatomical Explanation
C. Bizarre Movements Not Normally Seen in Organic Disease
D. Findings Elicited During Special Tests
II. Clinical Significance
A. Diagnostic Accuracy
B. Caveats to the Diagnosis of Nonorganic Disorders
References
70
Examination of Patients in the Intensive Care Unit
I. Introduction
II. The Findings
A. Modified Early Warning Score (Table 70.1)
B. Assessment of Peripheral Perfusion in the ICU
C. Pulse Pressure Changes With Passive Leg Elevation (Hypovolemia)
III. Clinical Significance
A. Modified Early Warning Score
B. Septic Shock and Cardiogenic Shock
C. Pulse Pressure Changes with Passive Leg Elevation (Hypovolemia)
D. Assessment of Peripheral Perfusion in the ICU
E. Lung Findings
F. Neurologic Findings
References
71 Appendix: Likelihood Ratios, Confidence Intervals, and Pretest Probability
Index