Enlightenments and Counter-Enlightenments: The Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity, 1650–1750. By Jonathan Israel. (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. 810 pp. $45.00.)Enemies of the Enlightenment: The French Counter-Enlightenment and the Making of Modernity. By Darrin McMahon. (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. 262 pp. $35.00.)The Creation of the Modern World: The British Enlightenment. By Roy Porter. (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000. 728 pp. $39.95.)How the Scots Created the Modern World: The True Story of How Europe’s Poorest Nation Created Our World and Everything in It. By Arthur Herman. (New York: Crown, 2002. 392 pp. $25.95.)