Contents
About the Editor
Contributors
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Acknowledgments
A
Absolute Age Determinations: Radiometric
Definition
Introduction
Radioactivity and the Systematics of Its Use as a Chronometer
The Application of Radiometric Dating
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Anthropogenic Seismicity Related to Exploitation of Georesources
Definition
Overview
Mechanisms of Interaction Between Technological Activity and the Rock Mass
Induced, Triggered, or Natural
Specific Features
Collaborative Undertakings for Research into Anthropogenic Seismicity
Summary
Bibliography
Archaeomagnetism
Synonyms
Definition
Basic Features
Archaeological Site Sampling
Directional Analyses
Paleo-intensity Analyses
Magnetic Dating Based on the Direction of Remanence
Relative Dating
Chronological Dating
Magnetic Polarity and Polarity Excursion Dating
Magnetic Dating Based on the Intensity of Remanence
Errors
General Errors
Errors Specific to Directional Dating
Errors Specific to Intensity Dating
Overall Error Assessment
Specialized Applications
Murals and Plaster
Object Reconstruction
Archaeological Sediments
Magnetic Sourcing´´
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Artificial Water Reservoir-Triggered Earthquakes, with Special Emphasis on Koyna, India
Definition and Introduction
Triggered vis-à-vis Induced Earthquakes
Artificial Water Reservoir-Triggered Earthquakes
Reservoir-Triggered Seismicity (RTS): Global Distribution
Important Factors for RTS
Common Characteristics of RTS Sequences
Mechanism of Triggered Earthquakes
Koyna, India
How Long Triggered Earthquakes Will Continue at Koyna?
Short-Term Earthquake Forecast at Koyna
Near-Source Studies at Koyna
Pilot Borehole Location
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
B
Biogeophysics
Definition
Introduction
Geophysical Detection of Cells and Biofilms
Geophysical Detection of Metabolic By-Products and Mineral Weathering
Geophysical Detection of Microbially Mediated Redox Processes
Geophysical Detection of Microbe-Mineral Transformations
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Body Waves
Synonyms
Definition
Types of Body Waves
Wave Propagation
Waves on a Seismogram
Refraction
Reflection
Velocity
Velocity of P- and S-waves
P-waves
S-waves
Attenuation
Summary: Results of Regional and Global Studies
Body-Wave Modeling
Cross-References
Bibliography
Borehole Seismic Networks and Arrays
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Early Developments
Current Instrumentation and Installation
Noise-Suppression and Signal-Detection Advantages
Networks Versus Arrays
Illustrative Examples
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
C
Characteristic Earthquakes and Seismic Gaps
Definition
Introduction
History
Assumptions
Small Characteristic Earthquakes
Modified Seismic Gap Hypothesis
Challenges to the Seismic Gap Model
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Continental Crustal Structure
Definition
Introduction
Methods
Cratons
Orogens
Extensional Areas
Constraints on Crustal Petrology
Summary
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Continental Drift
Definition
Introduction
Alfred Wegener
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Continental Rifts
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Rift, Graben, and Taphrogen
General Properties of Rifts
Structure of Rifts
Sedimentation in Rifts
Magmatism in Rifts
Metamorphism in Rifts
Kinds of Rifts
Geometric Classification of Rifts (See Figs. 7 and 8)
Kinematic Classification of Rifts (See Fig. 8)
Dynamic (Genetic) Classification of Rifts (See Fig. 6)
Concluding Note
Bibliography
Core Dynamo
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Dynamo Model Concept and Equations
Model Setup
Dynamo Equations
Parameters
Energetics of the Geodynamo
Flow Pattern and Dynamo Mechanism
Flow Outside Tangent Cylinder
Flow Inside Tangent Cylinder
Field Properties
Field Strength Inside the Core
Scaling Laws
Magnetic Field Geometry
Secular Variation
Time Scales
Advection vs. Diffusion of Field
Magnetic Field Reversals
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Core-Mantle Coupling
Definition, Scope, and Aims
The Four Coupling Processes
The Viscous Torque
The Topographic Torque
The Gravitational Torque
The Magnetic Torque
Synthesis
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Crustal Reflectivity (Oceanic) and Magma Chamber
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Methods
Crustal Structure at Fast Spreading Centers
Plot Triplication
Axial Magma Chamber (Melt Lens)
Lower Crust
Oceanic Moho
Crustal Thickness
Upper Mantle
Faults in the Oceanic Crust and Upper Mantle
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Curie Temperature
Synonyms
Definition
Magnetic Minerals and Curie Temperature
Geomagnetic Implications
Cross-References
Bibliography
D
Deep Scientific Drilling
Definition
Introduction
Goals of Scientific Drilling
Drilling, Sampling, and Monitoring Techniques
Dynamics of Continental Crust
Volcanic Systems
Mid-ocean Ridge Magmatism
Active Volcano Drilling and Subduction-Induced Volcanism
Mantle Plume Volcanism
Impact Craters
Active Fault Zones
Nojima Fault Projects, Japan
SAFOD, California
Taiwan Chelungpu Drilling Project, Taiwan
Wenchuan Earthquake Fault Scientific Drilling Project (WFSD), Sichuan, China
Geophysical Observatory in the Eastern Sea of Marmara, GONAF
Deep Scientific Drilling to Study Reservoir-Triggered Earthquakes in Koyna, India
Subduction Zone Fault Drilling at Sea
Japan Trench Fast Drilling Project (JFAST)
Unconventional Resources: Geoenergy
The Iceland Deep Drilling Project, IDDP
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Deep Seismic Reflection and Refraction Profiling
Synonyms
Definition
Deep Seismic Reflection and Refraction Profiling
Notational Notes
Introduction
Basic Principles
Data Acquisition
Field Layouts
Special Processing and Interpretation Tools
Main Results
Some Recent Developments
Research Problems
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Differential Rotation of the Earth´s Inner Core
Definition
Background
Seismological Observations
Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
Bibliography
E
Earth Rotation
Definition
Introduction
Mathematical Formulation of Earth Rotation
Definition and Observation of Earth Orientation Parameters
IERS International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earth Tides
Definition
The Tidal Force
The Earth´s Response
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earth, Density Distribution
Definition
The Mean Density
The Moment of Inertia Constraint
Self-Compression
Free Oscillation Data
A Density Gradient Anomaly
Extrapolation to Zero Pressure and Inferences About Composition
Lateral Density Variations
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earth´s Structure, Core
Definition
Overall Structure
Radial and Lateral Variations
Irregular Surface
Mushy Zone at the Top
Temporal Changes
Possible Physical Mechanisms
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earth´s Structure, Global
Definition
Introduction
1D Structure of the Earth
Characterizing the Interior of the Earth with Earthquake Waves
From 1D Models to 3D Tomographic Models
Mantle Convection Jigsaw
Seismic 3D Tomography: The Earth Scanner
An Anisotropic and Anelastic Earth
Outlook: New Challenges
Cross-References
Bibliography
Further Reading
Earth´s Structure, Lower Mantle
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Tools for Studying the Lower Mantle
Three-Dimensional Structure and Dynamics
Future Progress
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earth´s Structure, Upper Mantle
Definition
Tomographic Techniques
Global Models
Regional Models
Outlook
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquake Lights
Synonyms
Definition
Classification of Earthquake Lights
Examples of EQL
Example of Type 3 EQL
Source of EQL and Associated Electromagnetic (EM) Phenomena
Conclusion
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquake Precursors and Prediction
Definitions and Introduction
History
Nonmechanical Short-Term Precursors
Difficulties Inherent to Short-Term Precursors
Macro-anomalies
Geochemical/Hydrological Precursors
Satellite IR Images as Possible Surface Temperature
Electric, Magnetic, and EM Precursors
Telluric Current Precursors: The VAN Method
Ultralow Frequency (ULF) Precursors
Higher-Frequency EM Emission
Lithosphere-Atmosphere-Ionosphere Coupling
Possible Mechanism of Pre-seismic EM Emissions
Critical Phenomena
Summary and Future Outlook
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquake Prediction, M8 Algorithm
Definition
Introduction
The M8 Algorithm
The MSc Algorithm
Targeting Mega-earthquakes
Conclusion
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquake Rupture: The Inverse Problem
Definition
Introduction
Definition of Some Common Terms Used in Inverse Theory
The Method
Constraints from Laboratory Experiments
Discussion of Results of Inversion
Super-Shear Wave Rupture Speeds
Earthquake Rupture Complexity
Large Earthquakes on Transform Faults
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquake Sounds
Definition
Introduction
Records of Sounds
How Are Sounds Produced?
Applications of Sounds
Infrasound
Sonification, Education, and Art
Summary
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Earthquake Source Theory
Definition
Introduction
Point Source Models
Finite Source Models
Kinematic Models
Dynamical Fault Models
Future Work
Bibliography
Earthquake, Aftershocks
Definition
Introduction
Scaling Laws for Aftershocks
Causes of Aftershocks
Aftershocks and Earthquake Hazard
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquake, Archaeoseismology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Archaeoseismic Observations
Methods
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquake, Focal Mechanism
Definition
Representation by a Double-Couple
Focal Mechanisms from P-Wave First Motions
Stress Release
Fundamental Results
Modern Focal Solutions: Inversion of the Moment Tensor
Evaluation Tools for Double-Couple Solutions
Non-double-Couple Solutions
Conclusion
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquake, Foreshocks
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Characteristics of Foreshocks
Causes of Foreshocks
Can Foreshocks Be Used to Predict Earthquakes?
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquake, Magnitude
Synonyms
Definition
Original Definition of Earthquake Magnitude
Local Magnitude Scales
Teleseismic Magnitude Scales
Surface-Wave Magnitudes
Body-Wave Magnitudes
Relationships Between Magnitude Scales and Released Seismic Energy Es
MagnitudeSaturation´´
Non-Saturating Magnitude Scales
Relationship Between Mw, Me, and Classical Magnitudes
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquakes and Crustal Deformation
Definition
Types of Earthquakes and Related Phenomena Defined
Elastic Rebound Theory
Pre-seismic Crustal Deformation
Co-seismic Crustal Deformation
Post-seismic Crustal Deformation
Observational Advances and New Discoveries
Perspectives
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquakes in the Himalaya
Definition
Introduction
Geodynamic Models of Himalaya-Tibetan Orogenic System
Crustal Deformation and Strain Buildup Along Himalayan Arc
Mid-Crustal Seismicity and Associated Seismic Swarm Along Main Himalayan Thrust
Factors Influencing Himalayan Earthquakes
Role of Subducted Ridge
Stress Triggering Process
Non-tectonic Deformation
Human-Induced Deformation
Future Directions: Key Questions to Be Answered
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquakes on Oceanic Transform Faults, Unexpectedly Large
Definition
Introduction
Rupture on Conjugate Faults in an Oceanic Setting
Rupture on a Fault Normal to the Preexisting Zones of Weakness
Simultaneous Earthquake Rupture on Conjugate Faults in an Oceanic Setting
A Great Earthquake on a Fossil Fracture Zone
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquakes, Did You Feel It?
Definition and Introduction
Historical Context
The DYFI System
Citizen Science Seismology
Outlook
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquakes, Early and Strong Motion Warning
Synopsis
Introduction
Uses of Early Warning
Approaches to Early Warning
Implementations of Early Warning
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquakes, Energy
Definition and Calculation
Summary and Outlook
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquakes, Intensity
Synonyms
Definition
Macroseismic Scales and Intensity Assignment
Nature of Sensors
History of Intensity Scales
Conversion of Intensity Scales
Macroseismic Surveys
Intensity Attenuation with Distance
Conversion of Intensities to Magnitudes
Relation of Intensities to Recorded Strong Ground Motion
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquakes, Intraplate
Synonyms
Definition
Mechanism of Intraplate Earthquakes
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquakes, Location Techniques
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Early History
Single-Event Location
Location Uncertainty
Multiple-Event Location
Waveform Cross-Correlation
Relative Location
Time Reversal and Migration Location
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquakes, PAGER
Definition and Introduction
The PAGER Process
The PAGER Earthquake Impact Scale
Ongoing PAGER Developments
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquakes, ShakeCast
Definition
Background
ShakeCast System Overview
Outlook
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquakes, ShakeMap
Definition and Introduction
Historical Context
Related Systems and Uses
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquakes, Strong-Ground Motion
Definition
Introduction
Description of Strong-Ground Motion
Earthquake Source Effects on Strong-Ground Motion: Near-Field Effects
Wave-Propagation Effects
Strong-Ground Motion Modeling
Strong-Motion Simulation: An Example
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Earthquakes, Volcanogenic
Definition
Volcano Seismology
Introduction
Volcano-Tectonic Earthquakes
Rock-Fall and Lahar Events
Low-Frequency Earthquakes
Volcanic Tremor
Very-Long-Period Earthquakes
Volcano Seismology in a Wider Volcanological Context
Estimation of Magma Ascent Rate
Combining Seismicity with Infrasonic Signals
Detection of Lahars and Pyroclastic Flows
Detecting Stress Changes in Volcanic Settings
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Electrical Properties of Rocks
Definition
Introduction
Definition of Electrical Conductivity (Resistivity)
Electrical Conduction
Electrical Conductivity of Liquid-Bearing Rocks
Electrical Conductivity of Crust
Electrical Conductivity of the Earth´s Mantle
Origin of High Conductive Anomalies in the Mantle
Oceanic Asthenosphere
Mantle Transition Zone
The Base of the Lower Mantle
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Electrical Resistivity Surveys and Data Interpretation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Traditional Profiling and Sounding Surveys
Two-Dimensional Resistivity Imaging Surveys
Three-Dimensional Resistivity Imaging Surveys
4-D Time-Lapse Surveys
Summary
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Electromagnetic Methods, Imaging Magma Bodies
Definition: Essential Concepts
Observations
Interpretation
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Electromagnetic Pulsations and Magnetic Storms
Definition
Electromagnetic Pulsations
Classification of Magnetic Pulsations
Generation Mechanisms of Magnetic Pulsations
Substorms and Magnetic Storms
Relationship Between Magnetic Pulsations and Substorms and Magnetic Storms
Magnetic Storms and Society
Future Outlook
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Electronic Geophysical Year
Definition
Introduction and Concept
History
Scope
Operations
Achievements
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Energy Budget of the Earth
Definition
Total Heat Loss of the Earth
Continental Heat Flow
Oceanic Heat Flow
Young Sea Floor
Old Sea Floor
Bathymetry
Age Distribution of the Sea Floor
Hot Spots
Energy Budget of the Mantle
Radiogenic Heat Production
Heat Flux From the Core
Secular Cooling
Present and Long Term Cooling Rates
Perspectives
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Energy Partitioning of Seismic Waves
Synonyms
Definition
Summary
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Equatorial Electrojet
Definition
Cause
Characteristics of the EEJ
Uses of EEJ Observations
Cross-References
Bibliography
F
Fault Zone Guided Waves
Synonyms
Definition
A Short and Recent History of Fault Zone Guided Wave Seismology and Controversies
Types of Fault Zone Guided Waves and Their Particle Motions
The Effects of Fault Geometry, Velocity Structure, Anisotropy, and Heterogeneity
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Fiber Optic Distributed Strain Sensing for Seismic Applications
Definition
Introduction
Optical Fibers
Cable Coupling
Determination of Strain Changes Along Optical Fiber
DAS Versus Conventional Seismic Sensing
Localization of the Sensor Position
Selected Case Studies
Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Fiber-Optic Sensing in Geophysics, Temperature Measurements
Definition
Introduction
Optical Fibers
Sensor Configurations, Sensing Methods
Point Sensors, Sensor Arrays
Distributed Sensing
Interrogation Techniques
DTS Based on Raman Scattering
Implementation
Temperature Accuracy and Resolution
Hydrogen Darkening
Sensor Cables, Deployment Methods
Permanent Installation
Temporary/Retrievable Installation
Applications, Methods of Evaluation
Passive Monitoring
Formation Temperatures, Heat Flow Studies
Flow Profiling
Well Cementing and Well Treatments
High-Temperature Applications
Active Methods
Fluid Logging, Thermal Tracer/Dilution Techniques
Heat-Pulse Method
Other Applications in Related Disciplines
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Floating Seismographs (MERMAIDS)
Definition
History
Technical Description
Signal Discrimination
A Typical Mission
Other Sensors
Multi-MERMAID
Recent Results
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Fractal Scaling of Earthquakes
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Scaling of Earthquake Sources
Scaling of Distribution in Slip Roughness
Unified Scaling Law
Statistical Treatment of Fractal Heterogeneities in Earth
Seismic Attenuation in Fractal Media
Summary and Outlook
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibilography
Fractals and Chaos
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Basic Concepts
Power Law (Scaling Behavior)
Fractional Brownian Motion (fBm)
Fractional Gaussian Noise (fGn)
Fractal Signal Analysis
Analyzing Geophysical Time Series
Fractal Behavior of Various Physical Properties
Fractals in Seismology
Fractal Porous Media
Chaos
Summary
Bibliography
Free Oscillations of the Earth
Definition
Introduction
Toroidal Oscillations of a Uniform Elastic Sphere
Spheroidal Oscillations of a Uniform Elastic Sphere
Oscillations of an SNREI Earth Model
Effect of the Rotation of the Earth
Jeans´ Formula
Continuous Free Oscillations of the Earth
Conclusions
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
G
Geodesy, Figure of the Earth
Definition
Background
Mathematical Figures of the Earth
Reference Coordinate System
Datum
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Geodesy, Ground Positioning, and Levelling
Definition
Introduction
Ground Positioning
Levelling
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Geodesy, Networks, and Reference Systems
Definition
Introduction
Geodetic Reference Systems
Theory of Reference Systems
Metrology
Global Geodetic Reference Systems
International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS)
World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84)
Continental Reference Systems
National Geodetic Reference Systems
Historical Reference Systems
Global Geodesy
International Services
Fundamental Station for Geodesy
Instrumentation of a Fundamental Station
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Geodesy, Physical
Definition
Historical Development of Geodesy
Gravity Field of the Earth
Properties of the Gravitational Potential
Disturbing Potential
Geoid and Reference Ellipsoid
Methods of In Situ Measurements
Satellite Geodesy
Determining the Geoid
Gravity Reduction
Gravity Models
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Geodetic Pendulums, Horizontal Ultra Broad Band
Synonyms
Definition
Instrument Description
Grotta Gigante Horizontal Pendulums
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Links to Geodynamic Observatories with Active Tiltmeters
Geodynamics
Definition
Cross-References
Bibliography
Geoelectromagnetism
Definitions and Scope
Introduction
Magnetovariational Sounding (MVS) and Magnetovariational Profiling (MVP)
Deep Mantle MVS Studies
Magnetovariational Profiling
Array Transfer Function
Magnetotelluric Soundings
Basic Formulas
Interpretation
Application to Geosciences and Future Directions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Geoid
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Geoid and Heights
Geoid Modeling from Gravity Data
Measuring Height of the Everest
Geoid Anomaly and Tectonics
GRACE and Coseismic Deformation
Tectonic Forces
Bibliography
Geoid Determination, Computational Methods
Definition
Introduction
The Remove-Compute-Restore Technique
Computation of the GM-Contributions
Computation of the Δg-Contribution
Computation of the Terrain Contributions
Evaluation of Satellite Altimetry Contributions
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Geoid Determination, Theory and Principles
Definition
Basic Principles: the Gravity, Normal, and Disturbing Potentials
The Stokes and Molodensky Geodetic BVPs
Analytical Solutions to the Geodetic BVPs
The Operational Solution to the Geodetic BVPs
The Treatment of the Topography
The Oceanic Geoid and Gravity from Satellite Altimetry
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Geoid Undulation, Interpretation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Direct Problem
Inverse Problem
Truncated Geoid
Some Other Applications
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Geomagnetic Excursions
Synonyms
Definition
Geographical and Temporal Extent
Field Configuration During Excursions
Origin
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Geomagnetic Field, Global Pattern
Definition
Introduction
Observations
Spherical Harmonic Analysis
Maps of the Geomagnetic Field
Recent Changes in the Geomagnetic Field
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Geomagnetic Field, IGRF
Definition
Datasets
Basic Mathematical Expression
IGRF Evolving
Summary or Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Geomagnetic Field, Measurement Techniques
Introduction
Earth´s Surface Magnetic Field Measurements
General Observatory Setting
Absolute Calibration of a Vector Magnetometers
Near-Earth Magnetic Field Measurements
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Geomagnetic Field, Polarity Reversals
Introduction: The Discovery of Geomagnetic Reversals
The Geomagnetic Polarity Timescale
The Changing Frequency over Time and the Duration of Geomagnetic Reversals
The Morphology of Geomagnetic Reversals
Dynamo Mechanisms and Reversals
Outlook: The Future of Geomagnetic Reversals
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Geomagnetic Field, Secular Variation
Definition
Cross-References
Bibliography
Geomagnetic Field, Theory
Definition
Introduction
Kinematic Dynamo Theory
Energetics of the Geodynamo
Magnetohydrodynamic Theory of the Geodynamo
Time Dependence of the Geodynamo
Outlook
Cross-References
Bibliography
Geomagnetically Induced Currents
Definition
Introduction
Space Weather Events and Geomagnetically Induced Currents
Generation of GIC Events
Future Outlook
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Geophysical Well Logging
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Wellbore Environment
Calibration and Standardization of Logs
Benefits and Limitations of Logging
Principles
Instrumentation
Fundamentals of Log Analysis
Cross Plots
Applications of Geophysical Well Logging
In the Oil Industry
Indirect-Imaging Technologies: Acoustic and Electrical
Hydrogeologic Applications
Mineral Exploration
Civil Engineering, Rock Mechanics, and Environmental Preservation
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Geothermal Heat Pumps
Definition
The Resource
Geothermal Heat Pump (GHP) Technology
Heating and Cooling with GHPs
Design, Costs
Licensing, Environmental Benefits
Applications, Development Trends
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Geothermal Record of Climate Change
Definition
Introduction
The Geothermal Method of Temperature Reconstruction
Tutorial
A Global Geothermal Climate Change Database
Temperature-Depth Profiles
Repeat Temperature Logs
Temperature Reconstruction Analysis
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
GPS, Data Acquisition, and Analysis
Definition
Other Satellite-Based Navigation Systems
Satellite Positioning
Point Positioning
Relative Positioning
System Description
Introduction
Satellites, Signals, and System Time
GPS Ground Instrumentation
Antenna
Receiver
Measurements
Code Pseudo-range Model
Carrier Phase Model
Remarks
Single and Double Differences
Errors and Biases
Introduction
Receiver-Dependent Errors
Measurement Noise
Receiver Clock Errors
Antenna-Specific Errors
Cycle Slips
Satellite-Dependent Biases
Orbit and Satellite Clock Errors
Antenna-Specific Errors
Signal Propagation Biases
Ionospheric Refraction
Tropospheric Refraction
Summary
Positioning Modes
Point Positioning
Relative Positioning
High-Precision Positioning
Conclusion
Cross-References
Bibliography
GPS, Tectonic Geodesy
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
History of Tectonic Geodesy
Plate Motions
Steady Interseismic Deformation´´
Transient Fault Movements
Coseismic Deformation
Real-Time Coseismic Deformation
Postseismic Deformation
Volcano Deformation
Glacial Isostatic Adjustment and Sea Level Studies
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Gravimeters
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Performance Requirements
Technology
Sensor Technology
Fused Quartz
Metal
Superconducting
Inertial-Grade Accelerometers
Design Principles
Gravity Sensor Natural Period, Sensitivity, and Seismic Noise
Displacement Sensing and Feedback
Error Sources
Intrinsic Error Sources
Scale Factor Changes
Instrument Noise
Long-Term Drift
External Noise Sources
Sensor Motion and Orientation
Temperature, Pressure, and Magnetic Field
Transportation Effects
Gravimeters
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Gravity Anomalies, Interpretation
Definition
Introduction
Formulation of the Problem
Gravity Anomalies: Conditions and Enhancement
Forward Method
Inverse Method
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Gravity Data, Advanced Processing
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Spectral Modeling
Potential Field Transformations
Euler and Werner Deconvolution
Euler Deconvolution
Extended Euler Deconvolution
Tensor Deconvolution
Wavelet Analysis, with Advantages and Limitations
Introduction
The CWT and Windowed Fourier Transform
Applications
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Gravity Data, Regional-Residual Separation
Definition
Introduction
Regional-Residual Separation
Analytical Methods
Possible Drawbacks in Regional Computation
New Approach Based on Finite Element Analysis
Accuracy
Paradox Basin, Utah (Frequency-Domain)
Residual Gravity Anomalies
Klamath Mountains and Cascade Range (Model-Based Space-Domain)
Recent Studies on FEM Applications
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Gravity Field of the Earth
Definition and Scope
Introduction
Historical Notes
Newton´s Law of Gravitation
Spatial and Temporal Variation Above the Surface
Spherical Harmonics
Green´s Functions
The Disturbing Potential
Spectral Contributions
Low-Degree Harmonics
Low-Degree Harmonics as Density Moments
Normal Reference Field
Earth´s Internal Gravitational Field
Summary
Bibliography
Gravity Field, Temporal Variations from Space Techniques
Definition
The GRACE Mission (2002-2017)
Modeling Temporal Geoid Variations
GRACE Data Errors
Applications of GRACE
Hydrology
Land Ice Loss from GRACE
Ocean Mass Change
GIA Effect
Coseismic and Post-seismic Deformations Due to Large Earthquakes
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Gravity Field, Time Variations from Surface Measurements
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Concepts and Applications
Tides
Sea Level Variation
Atmospheric Pressure
Polar Motion
Free Oscillations of the Earth
Glacial Isostatic Adjustment
Volcanic Mass Changes
Crustal Deformation Associated with Earthquakes
Hydrology
Oil, Gas and Geothermal Reservoir Monitoring
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Gravity Measurements, Absolute
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
History
Principles of Modern Measurements
Macroscopic Falling Test Mass
Microscopic Falling Test Masses
Instrumentation
Applications to Geophysics
Summary
Bibliography
Gravity Method, Airborne
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Principle Idea of Airborne Gravity
Attitude Compensation Platforms
Scalar Gravity Meters
Vector Gravity Meters
Gravity Gradient Meters
Processing, Reductions, and Corrections
Applications and Aircraft
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Gravity Method, Principles
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Potential Function
Newton´s Law and Newtonian Potential
Anomalies
Ambiguity and Principle of Equivalence
The Inversion Problem
Units and Gravitational Constant
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Gravity Method, Satellite
Definition
Introduction
Geodesy, Gravity Field, and Scientific Applications: Why?
Classical Ways of Measuring the Earth´s Gravity Field
New Satellite Missions
Overview of Satellite Dynamics Methods
The Representation of the Gravitational Potential
The Solution of the Dynamical Problem
Reference System and Time Scale
Equations of Motion
Integration of the Equations of Motion
Variational Equations and Their Integration
The Observation Equations for the Inverse Problem
General Form of the Equations
Example: Range Measurement Generic Observation Equation
The Solution of the Inverse Problem
Progress Made: A Short Summary
Conclusion and Vision of the Future of Gravity Mapping from Satellite
Cross-References
Bibliography
Gravity Method, Surface
Definition
Introduction
Measuring Equipment
Gravity Measurements
Elevation and Position Measurements
Land Gravity Survey
Preprocessing of Field Data
Drift Correction
Base Loop Correction
Marine Gravity Survey
Moving Platform Correction
Earth Tide Correction
Drift Correction
Network or Crossover Adjustments
Design of Survey
Regional Surveys for Geodynamic Studies
Hydrocarbon Exploration
Reconnaissance Gravity Survey
Detailed/Integrated Gravity Survey
Surveys for Minerals, Groundwater, and Engineering Sites
Reconnaissance Survey
Detailed/Integrated Gravity Survey
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Gravity Modeling, Theory and Computation
Definition
The Gravity Modeling from a Theoretical Point of View
The Linear Inverse Gravimetric Problem
The Nonlinear Inverse Gravimetric Problem
Spectral Approaches
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Gravity, Data to Anomalies
Definition
Introduction
Key Parameters
Observed Gravity
Anomalous Gravity in Geophysics
Computing Model Gravity at the Measurement Point
A Note on Units
Normal Gravity (Fig. 2b)
Free Air Correction (Fig. 2c)
Bouguer Correction (Fig. 2d)
Terrain Correction (Fig. 2e)
Anomaly Computation
Other Factors
Atmospheric Correction
Further Isolating Anomalies of Interest
Distant Relief
The GeophysicalIndirect Effect´´
Gravity Anomalies for Geodetic Purposes
Computation Example: The Central Andes
Summary
Bibliography
Gravity, Global Models
Synonyms
Definition
Global Gravitational Models
Introduction
Local and Regional Gravimetric Models
Signal Representation and Data Characteristics
The Recent Gravity-Mapping Satellite Missions
Beyond the Sensitivity of Satellite Data
State-of-the-Art Global Gravitational Modeling
Model Evaluation and Accuracy Assessment
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Gravity, Gradiometry
Definition and Scope
Introduction
Mathematical Foundations
Gravitational Gradients
Other Coordinate Systems
Invariants
Models and Modeling
Reference Field and Power Spectral Density
Measurement Error Analysis
Gradiometry
Applications
Summary
Bibliography
Great Earthquakes
Definition
Introduction
1 November 1755: The Advance of Rationalism
18 April 1906: The Archetype of Earthquakes
26 December 2004: Cataclysm
11 March 2011: Prepared or Not Prepared?
Summary
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
H
Heat and Ground Water Flow
Definition
Energy Equation for Ground Water Flow
Heat Advection
Hydrothermal Systems
Heat Convection
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Heat Flow Determinations, Continental
Definition
Introduction
Temperature
Thermal Conductivity
In Situ Thermal Conductivity Measurement in Boreholes
Sampling
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Heat Flow, Continental
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Fourier´s Law
Geothermal Gradient
Sources of Heat
Mechanisms of Heat Transport
Global Distribution of Continental Heat Flow
Paleo-Heat Flow
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Heat Flow, Seafloor: Methods and Observations
Definition
History of Observations
Methods
Shallow Measurements in Marine Sediments
Deep Borehole Measurements
Estimating Heat Flux From the Depth Limit of Gas Hydrate Stability
Example Studies
Heat Flow Signals from Hydrothermal Circulation
Dependence of Heat Flux on Age and the Global Average
The Signature of Subduction
Bottom-Water Temperature Perturbations
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Height Systems, Vertical Datums and Their Unification
Definition
Introduction
Height Systems
Vertical Datum Definition and Realization
Geodetic BVP Solutions for Single and Multiple Vertical Datums
Determination of Vertical Datum Offsets
Summary and Outlook
Cross-References
Bibliography
High-Frequency Seismology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Basic Wave Propagation Principle
Acoustic Wave Propagation
Elastic Wave Propagation
Elastic Wave Equation
Theory of Seismic Wave Attenuation and Its Effects on Seismic Waveform
Methods of Analysis of High-frequency Seismograms
Scattering of Seismic Waves in Heterogeneous Media
Coda Wave Analysis
Seismogram Analysis of the 1999 Chamoli Earthquake
Summary and Outlook
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
I
Impact Craters on Earth
Definition
The Terrestrial Record
Introduction
Distribution
Morphology
Geology of Impact Structures
Geophysics of Impact Structures
Impacts and Earth History
Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
Bibliography
Instrumentation, Electrical Resistivity
Definition
Introduction
Basic Resistivity Instruments
Electrode Types
Multielectrode and Multichannel Systems
Full-Waveform Systems
Capacitively Coupled Systems
Automated Resistivity Monitoring Systems
Summary
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Instrumentation, EM
Definition
Introduction
Electric Field Measurement
Magnetic Field Measurement
EM Transmitters
Data Acquisition Systems
Navigation
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
International Geophysical Year
Definition
Introduction and Concept
History
Scope
Operations
Achievements
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
International Gravity Formula
Definition
Cross-References
Bibliography
International Polar Year 2007-2008
Concept
History
Scope
Achievements
Major Advances in Polar Knowledge and Understanding
Infrastructure Legacy
A New Generation
Excite and Stimulate the Public
Challenges Ahead
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
International Year of Planet Earth
Definition
Background and Activities
Legacy
Perspectives
The Earth Science Matters Foundation
GEOPARKS as a Tool
Global Geoscience Initiative
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Inverse Theory, Artificial Neural Networks
Definition
Introduction
Geophysical Inversion
Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)
Geophysical Inversion Using Artificial Neural Networks
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Inverse Theory, Global Optimization
Definition
Global Optimization
Introduction
Method
Background
Optimization
Simulated Annealing
Genetic Algorithm
Neighborhood Algorithm (NA)
Particle Swarm Optimization
Trans-dimensional Inversion
Applications
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Inverse Theory, Linear
Introduction
Linear Inverse Problems
Generalized Inverses
Least Square Inverse
Minimum Norm Inverse
Damped Least Square Inverse
Weighted Damped Least Square Inverse
Rao-Mitra Inverse
Backus-Gilbert Method
Continuous Inverse Problem
Discrete Inverse Problem
Trade-Off Between Resolution and Error Propagation
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Inverse Theory, Monte Carlo Method
Definition
Introduction
Nonlinearity and Multimodal Fitness Functions
Bayesian Inference
Markov Chain Monte Carlo
Fixed Dimension Approach
Transdimensional Approach
A Simple Example
Summary
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Inverse Theory, Singular Value Decomposition
Definition
Description
Inverse of A
Rank-Deficient Matrix and Its Inverse
Ill-Condition Matrix
Sensitivity to Errors in Data
Resolution Matrices
Example
Summary
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Isostasy
Synonyms
Definition
Historical Background
Concepts and Applications
Current Investigations
Current Controversies and Gaps in Knowledge
The Long-Term Strength of the Lithosphere
Time-Scales of Isostatic Adjustment
Isostasy and Landscape Evolution
Long-Wavelength Gravity and Topography Anomalies, Isostasy, and Mantle Dynamics
Conclusions
Bibliography
Isostasy, Thermal
Definition
Introduction
Thermal Isostasy
Oceanic Thermal Isostasy
Continental Thermal Isostasy
Normalizing Compositional Elevation
Continental Thermal State
Revealing Thermal Isostasy on Continents
The North American Cordillera
Australia
Thermal Isostasy on Terrestrial Planets
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
K
KTB Depth Laboratory: A Window into the Upper Crust
Definition
Introduction
Scientific Background
KTB Data Infrastructure
KTB Depth Laboratory Utilization
Geoscientific Experiments
Test and Calibration of New and Existing Instruments, Methods, and Installations
Commercial Utilization of the KTB Wells
Outreach and Education
Long-Term Utilization of a Deep Borehole Site
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
L
Legal Continental Shelf: Geology, Geophysics, and Tectonics
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Defining the Outer Edge of the Continental Margin and the Limits of the Continental Shelf
Prolongation of the Land Mass
Role of Geology and Tectonics
Summary
Bibliography
Lithosphere, Continental
Definition and Introduction
Mechanical Models
Thermal Models
Seismological/Compositional Models: Tectosphere
Lithosphere-Asthenosphere Boundary
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Lithosphere, Continental: Thermal Structure
Definition
Introduction
The Thermal Boundary Layer of Mantle Convection
Thermal Structure
Heat Flux at the Base of the Continental Crust and at the Base of the Lithosphere
Heat Flux and Heat Production
The Moho Heat Flux
Lithospheric Geotherms
Thermal Transients
Secular Transients
Summary
Cross-References
Appendix: Thermal Conductivity
Lattice Conductivity
Bibliography
Lithosphere, Mechanical Properties
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Mechanical Properties at Different Timescales
Sources of Information on the Mechanical Properties of the Lithosphere
Observations of Flexural Behavior and Effective Long-Term Strength of the Lithosphere
Rheological Properties of Lithosphere According to Rock Mechanics Data
Elastic Properties
Brittle-Plastic Properties
Viscous-Ductile Properties
Mechanical Properties of Oceanic Lithosphere Versus Continental Lithosphere
Mechanical Properties of the Lithosphere and Four Modes of Horizontal Deformation
Uncertainties of Data on the Mechanical Properties of the Lithosphere
Mechanical Properties of the Lithosphere and Styles of Tectonic Deformation
Links Between Different Timescales: Burger´s Rheology Model
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Lithosphere, Oceanic
Definition
Introduction
The Mantle Component of the Lithosphere
Models Constrained by the Cooling of the Lithosphere as It Ages
Models Constrained by Rheological Observations
Models Constrained by Seismic and Magnetotelluric Observations
Surface Waves Studies
Studies Using Seismic Body Wave Phases
Other Geophysical Studies
The Crustal Component of the Oceanic Lithosphere
Samples of Crustal Rocks
Ophiolites, Ocean Drilling, and the Ocean Crust
Seismic Studies of the Ocean Crust
The Midocean Ridges
Hydrothermal Activity
Along-Axis Variations in Ridge Processes and Slow-Spreading Ridges
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Lithosphere, Oceanic: Thermal Structure
Definition
Introduction
Key Observations
Heat Flux
Seafloor Depth
Depth of the Lithosphere-Asthenosphere Boundary
Other Observational Constraints
Ways of Understanding Lithospheric Thermal Structure
Boundary-Layer Cooling
Plate Cooling Models
Influence of Plumes
Driving Forces for Lithospheric Motion
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Lithospheric Magnetic Anomalies from Satellite Data
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Lithospheric Field from Space
Mathematical Background
Global Models of Lithospheric Magnetic Anomalies
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
M
Magnetic Anisotropy
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Principles
Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy
Shape Anisotropy
Magnetostriction: Stress Anisotropy
Exchange Anisotropy
Anisotropy of Magnetic Susceptibility (AMS)
AMS: Applications in Geology and Geophysics
Anisotropy of the Magnetic Remanence (AMR)
AARM: Anisotropy of Anhysteretic Remanent Magnetization
AIRM: Anisotropy of Isothermal Remanent Magnetization
HFAMS: High-Field Anisotropy of Magnetic Susceptibility
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Magnetic Anomalies: Interpretation
Definition
Introduction
The Sources of Crustal and Lithospheric Fields
Measuring Magnetic Anomalies from Planes and Ships
Satellite Measurements
World Magnetic Anomalies: WDMAM
Qualitative Interpretations
Quantitative Geological Interpretations
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Magnetic Anomaly Map, Global
Definition
Introduction
Early Developments
Aeromagnetic and Marine Compilations
Satellite Compilations
Preparation of the Global Magnetic Anomaly Map
Methods
Line Leveling of Data
Least Squares Collocation
Merging Satellite Models
Other Candidate Models for WDMAM
The Gamma Model
The Leeds Model
Earth Magnetic Anomaly Grid (EMAG2)
NGDC-720 Lithospheric Magnetic Model
Enhanced Magnetic Model
World Digital Magnetic Anomaly MAP Version 2.0 (WDMAM2.0)
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Magnetic Data Enhancements and Depth Estimation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Standard Magnetic Data Processing Corrections
Diurnal Correction
Network Adjustment (Leveling)
Microleveling
Elevation Correction
De-culturing of Magnetic Field Data
Gridding of Magnetic Field Data
IGRF Correction
Reduction to Pole (RTP) Transform
The Pseudo-Gravity Transform
Enhancements of Magnetic Data
Image Display of Magnetic Field Data
Vertical Continuation of the Field
Vertical Gradients of the Field
Bandpass and Matched Filters
Regional-Residual Separation
The Total Gradient (Analytic Signal)
The Tilt Filter
The Normalized Source Strength (NSS)
Multiscale Edge Detection (Worms´´)
Mapping Extreme Field Variations
Analytic Derivation of Magnetic Source Parameters
The Werner Method
The Naudy Method
Euler Deconvolution
Targeted (Sweet-Spot´´) Inversion
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Magnetic Domains
Definition
Introduction
Classical Models of Magnetic Domain Structure
Exchange Energy
Magnetic Anisotropy Energy
Magnetostatic Energy
Energy and Width of the Domain Wall
Domain Width Versus Grain Size
Single-Domain/Two-Domain Transition Size do
Domains and Domain Walls Near Crystal Surfaces
Temperature Dependence of Domain Structure
Micromagnetic Models
Experimental Studies of Magnetic Domains
Methods of Imaging Domains and Domain Walls
Styles of Domains Observed in Magnetic Minerals of Paleomagnetic Significance
Number of Domains Versus Grain Size
Domain Wall Widths
Experimental Evidence for Local Energy Minimum (lEm) Domain States
LEM States and Thermomagnetic Treatments
Evolution of Magnetic Domain Structures at Elevated Temperatures
Magnetic Domain Structure in Magnetite at Low Temperatures
Cross-References
Bibliography
Magnetic Gradiometry
Definition
On the Conceptual Design of Gradiometers
Magnetometers
Advantages and Limitations
Areas of Application
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Magnetic Gradiometry in Archaeo-geophysics
Definition
Advantages of Magnetic Gradiometers
Instruments
Procedure in the Field
Case Studies
Do Different Measurement Instruments Deliver Different Results?
Conclusion
Cross-References
Bibliography
Magnetic Methods, Airborne
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Making Magnetic Measurements from the Air
Equipment
The Importance of Source-Sensor Separation
Survey Design
Survey Specifications
Data Processing
Correction for Temporal Changes in the Geomagnetic Field
Removal of Geomagnetic Field
Tie-Line Leveling
Microleveling
Gridding
Discussion of Data Processing
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Magnetic Methods, Principles
Definition
Introduction: Magnetic Field on Surface of Earth
Major Aspects of Probing the Geomagnetic Field
Core/Main Field and Its Changes
Developments in Observational Methods
Resulting Knowledge
External Field
Developments in Observational Methods
Resulting Knowledge
Lithospheric Field
Developments in Observational Methods
Resulting Knowledge
Induced Field
Methods to Study Subsurface Conductivity Structure
Methods to Study Geomagnetically Induced Currents (GIC) in the Earth´s Surface
Paleo Field
Developments in Observational Methods
Resulting Knowledge
Summary
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Magnetic Methods, Surface
Definition
Magnetic Observatory
Measurements at Magnetic Observatories
Observations from this Data
Products and Uses of Observatory Data
Land and Marine Surveys
Principles of Survey Measurements
Land Surveys
Marine Magnetic Surveys
Instrumentation Technologies
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Magnetic Modeling, Theory, and Computation
Definition
Introduction
Global Field Modeling
Spatial and Temporal Description
Inverse Problem and Implementation
Recent Developments in Magnetic Field Modeling
Regional Field Modeling
Harmonic Splines
Wavelet Analysis
Interpretation
Core Magnetic Field at Core-Mantle Boundary
Lithospheric Magnetic Field over the Arctic and African Regions
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Magnetometers
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Scalar (Quantum) Magnetometers
Background Physics
Proton Magnetometers
Overhauser Magnetometer
Optically Pumped Magnetometers
Measurement of Frequency
Absolute Accuracy and Precision
Vector Magnetometers
Fluxgate Magnetometer
Absolute Measurement
Quantum Vector Magnetometers
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Magnetotelluric Data Processing
Definition
Introduction
MT Transfer Functions
Least Squares Transfer Function Estimation
Robust Estimation
Leverage
Remote Reference
Error Estimates
Strike and Distortion Analysis
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Magnetotelluric Interpretation
What Is Magnetotellurics?
Fundamental Concepts: Surface Impedance and Apparent Resistivity
Principles of Depth Sounding
Effects of Lateral Heterogeneities
Current Strategies for MT Interpretation
Case Studies
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Magnetotellurics, Crustal Imaging
Definition
Costa Rican Subduction Zone
Ethiopian Rift and Afar
Himalayas
San Andreas Fault
Antarctica (Vestfold Hills and Rauer Group)
Dharwar Craton, India
Gawler Craton, Australia
Summary
Bibliography
Magnetovariation Studies
Definition
Interpretation
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Mantle Convection
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction and History
Basics of Thermal or Free Convection
Rayleigh-Bénard Convection
Convective Onset and the Rayleigh Number
Thermal Boundary Layers and the Nusselt Number
Patterns of Convection: Upwellings, Downwellings, Plumes, and Slabs
Plumes and Slabs in the Mantle: Simple View
Energy Sources for Mantle Convection and the Earth´s Thermochemical History
Effects of Mantle Material Properties
Mantle Rheology
Compressibility, Melting, and Solid Phase Changes
Mantle Geochemistry and Mantle Mixing
Mantle Convection and the Generation of Plate Tectonics
The Plate Generation Problem
Summary
Bibliography
Mantle D Layer
Definition and Introduction
Seismic Velocity Models for D
Seismic Velocity Discontinuities in D
Post-perovskite in D
Large Low Shear Velocity Provinces in D
Ultra-Low Velocity Zones in D
Seismic Velocity Anisotropy in D
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Mantle Plume: Spreading Ridge Interactions
Synonyms
Definition
Spreading Ridge System
Mantle Plume
Dynamics of Proximity of Spreading Ridge Activity and Hotspot Volcanism
Crustal Structure Beneath the Spreading Ridge, Volcanic Ridge and on-Spreading-Axis Hotspot Setting
Summary
Bibliography
Mantle Plumes
Definition
Hotspots
Global Hotspot Distribution and Hotspot Fixity
Evidence for Mantle Plumes
Geochemistry of Mantle Plumes
Genesis and Dynamics of Plumes and Superplumes
Plume Melting and Plume Strength
Continental Flood Basalts and Continental Breakup
LIP Magmatism and Environmental Effects
Plume-Lithosphere Interaction
Plume-Ridge Interaction
Summary and Conclusion
Future Directions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Mantle Viscosity
Definition
Introduction
Methods of Measurement
Non-Newtonian Rheology from Seismic Anisotropy
Natural Experiments
Mantle Viscosity from Glacial Isostatic Adjustment
Observational Data Sets
Results of Inversion of the Totality of the Data to Determine Mantle Viscosity Depth Dependence
Compatibility of the GIA-Based Viscosity Model with that Required by Models of the Mantle Convection Process
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Mapping of Magnetic Variations from Space
Definition
Measurements from Space
POGO Satellite Series
MAGSAT Mission
Decade of Geopotential Field Research
Modeling of Satellite Measurements
The Future
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Microcontinents
Definition
Introduction
Examples of Present-Day Microcontinents
The Jan Mayen Microcontinent in the North Atlantic Ocean
The Batavia and Gulden Draak Microcontinents in the Eastern Indian Ocean
Formation Mechanisms of Microcontinents
Summary and Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
N
Numerical Methods for Flow in Fractured Porous Media
Definition
Introduction
Numerical Models for Fractured Porous Media
Continuum Fracture Models
Discrete Fracture Models
Discretization Schemes for DFM
An Example of Computational Workflow
Conclusion
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Numerical Methods, Boundary Element
Definition
Introduction
How Does BEM Work?
What Can BEM Do?
Applications of the Boundary Element Method
Cross-References
Bibliography
Numerical Methods, Domain Decomposition
Definition
Introduction
Algorithms Without Overlap
Methods with Overlap
Application to Geophysical and Geological Problems
Cross-References
Bibliography
Numerical Methods, Finite Difference
Definition
Introduction
Theory of Wave Propagation and Fundamental Concepts
Finite-Difference Approximations
Accuracy and Numerical Dispersion
Lax-Wendroff Corrections, Optimally Accurate FD Schemes and Time Dispersion Correction
Time Stepping and Stability
Boundary Conditions
Topography and Conformal Mapping of Grids
Source Implementations
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Numerical Methods, Finite Element
Definition
General Introduction
Finite Element Model of 2-D Poisson Equation
Finite Element Models of the 2-D Navier-Stokes Equations
Velocity-Pressure (Mixed) Model
Penalty-Finite Element Model
Summary
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Numerical Methods, Multigrid
Definition
Introduction
History
Two-Grid Scheme
Multigrid
Nonlinear Multigrid
Generalizations
Beyond Partial Differential Equations
Geophysical Applications
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
O
Ocean Bottom Seismics
Synonyms
Introduction
Instrumentation
Ocean Bottom Seismometers
Ocean Bottom Cables
Ocean Bottom Seismic Nodes
Ocean Bottom Seismic Sources
Applications
P-Waves
P-to-S Converted Waves
Wide-Aperture (Wide-Azimuth) Studies
Passive-Source Seismology
Future Developments
Conclusions
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Ocean, Spreading Center
Definition
Introduction
Morphology and Spreading Rates of Mid-Oceanic Ridge
Internal Structure of the Mid-Oceanic Ridge
Relationships Between Spreading Rate, Seismic Structure, and Ridge-Axis Morphology
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Orogenic Belts
Synonyms
Partial Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
The Orogenic Architecture
Subduction-Controlled Orogens
Collision-Controlled Orogens
Species of Orogens
Orogenic Collages
Magmatism in Orogens
Subduction Magmatism
Collision Magmatism
Metamorphism in Orogens
Subduction-Related Metamorphism
Collision-Related Metamorphism
Geomorphology of Orogenic Belts
Economic Deposits in Orogenic Belts
Hydrocarbons
Coal
Metals
Building Materials
Summary
Bibliography
Further Reading
P
Paleomagnetic Field Intensity
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Absolute Palaeointensity Measurements
Relative Palaeointensity Measurements
Cosmogenic Isotope Palaeointensity Measurements
Geophysical Applications
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Paleomagnetism, Magnetostratigraphy
Synonyms
Definition
Magnetic Stratigraphy
Introduction
Detrital Remanent Magnetization
Field and Laboratory Techniques
Calibration and Correlation
Strengths and Weaknesses of Magnetic Stratigraphy
Some Applications and Implications
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Paleomagnetism, Measurement Techniques and Instrumentation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Techniques of Sampling, Measurement and Analysis
Field Sampling
Measurement and Treatment
Analysis
Statistics
Determination of Palaeomagnetic Poles
Instrumentation
Spinner Magnetometers
Cryogenic Magnetometers
Alternating Field Demagnetizers
Thermal Demagnetization
A Perspective on Seventy Years of Palaeomagnetism
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Paleomagnetism, Polar Wander
Definition and Introduction
Measure of True Polar Wander
Is a Reference Frame Based on Hotspots Valid?
Modeling of True Polar Wander
An Integrated Explanation for Polar Wander?
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Paleomagnetism, Principles
Definition
Introduction
The Geocentric Axial Dipole
Rock Magnetism
Remanent Magnetizations
Statistical Testing of Paleomagnetic Data
Virtual Geomagnetic Poles and Apparent Polar Wander Paths
Magnetic Polarity Reversals
Environmental Magnetism
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Paleoseismology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Paleoseismic Records
Fault Identification and Slip Rate
Evidence for Paleoearthquake
Time Constraints of Paleoearthquakes
Magnitude and Frequency of Paleoearthquakes
Off-Fault Paleoseismology
Seismic Hazard Assessment Based on Paleoseismology
Issues in Paleoseismology and Perspectives
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Plate Motions in Time: Inferences on Driving and Resisting Forces
Definition
Introduction
Plate Tectonics and the Rheology of the Lithosphere
Computer Models of the Faulted Lithosphere Coupled with Global Mantle Circulation Models
Recent Plate Motion Changes
Kinematics of the Southern Pacific and Atlantic, and Its Relations to Climate Variations and Topographic Growth in the Andes
Plate Motion Changes in the Indian Ocean
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Plate Tectonics, Precambrian
Definition
Introduction
Modern-Style Plate Tectonics and Criteria for Recognizing Plate Tectonics in the Precambrian Record
Evolution of Earth´s Geodynamic Regime and the Onset of Plate Tectonics
The Hadean Eon
The Archean-Proterozoic Eons
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Plate-Driving Forces
Definition
Introduction
Balance Between Buoyancy Forces and Viscous Dissipation
Plate-Driving Forces: Lithospheric Models
Plate-Driving Forces: Whole-Mantle Models
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Plates and Paleoreconstructions
Definition
Earthquakes and Plates
Plate Compositions, Sizes, and Shapes
Plate Tectonics
Plate Motions and Euler´s Theorem
Sliding Motions
Divergent Motions
Convergent Motions
Reference Frames
Plates as Reference Frames
Paleomagnetism as a Reference Frame
Hot-Spots as a Reference Frame
Paleoreconstructions
Conservation of Continental Shapes
Record of Continental Separation in the Ocean-Floor
Paleozoic and Precambrian Composites
Paleo-Plate Reconstructions
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Poroelasticity
Definition
Basic Concepts
Drained and Undrained Deformation
Linear Stress-Strain Formulation for Poroelastic Media
Gassmann´s Equation and Fluid Substitution
Fluid Substitution
Skempton Coefficient
Three-Dimensional Consolidation
Dynamic Poroelasticity and Wave Propagation in Saturated Porous Medium
Bibliography
Propagation of Elastic Waves: Fundamentals
Definition
Summary
Introduction
Newton´s Second Law
Cauchy´s Stress and Strain
Hooke´s Law
Navier´s Equation
D´Alembert Solution of Wave Equation
Fourier Transforms and Plane Waves
Green´s Function for Homogeneous Space
Green´s Function Retrieval from Correlations
Energy Densities at Given Points and Directions
The Horizontal-to-Vertical Spectral Ratio
Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
R
Radioactivity in Earth´s Core
Definition
Introduction
Potassium Radioactivity in the Earth´s Core
U (and th) Radioactivity in the Earth´s Core
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Radiogenic Heat Production in the Continental Crust
Definition
Crustal Thickness and Heat Production
Crustal Differentiation
Crustal Temperature and Strength
Summary: Crustal Stabilization
Cross-References
Bibliography
Radiogenic Heat Production of Rocks
Synonyms
Definition
Radiogenic Heat Generation
Tabulated Data
Calculated Heat Generation Rate
Measuring Techniques
Heat Generation and Geoneutrinos
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Recovery of Source Magnetization Direction from Magnetic Field Data
Definition
Introduction
The Expression of Magnetization Direction in Magnetic Field Data
Magnetization Contrast and Anomaly Separation
Magnetization Direction and Source Location
Magnetization Direction and Source Shape
Complex Distributions of Magnetization
Homogeneity and Inhomogeneity of Magnetization
Magnetic Field Studies and Paleomagnetism
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Remanent Magnetism
Definition
Introduction
Source of RM
Natural Remanent Magnetization (NRM)
Thermoremanent Magnetization (TRM)
Detrital Remanent Magnetization (DRM
Chemical Remanent Magnetization (CRM)
Viscous Remanent Magnetization (VRM)
Isothermal Remanent Magnetization (IRM)
Applications of Remanent Magnetization
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques for Tectonic Studies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Data and Method
Remote Sensing
Tectonic Studies
Geographic Information System (GIS)
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Remote Sensing, Applications to Geophysics
Definition
Introduction
Application of Remote Sensing to Geophysics
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
S
SAR Interferometry
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Fundamentals of SAR Imaging and SAR Data
Fundamental Principles of InSAR
InSAR Processing
Outlook for InSAR Geodesy
Cross-References
Bibliography
Satellite Altimetry
Synonyms
Definition
Satellite Altimetry
Measurement Principles in Altimetry
Oceanography by Altimetry
Hydrology by Altimetry
Ice and Cryosphere Monitoring
Summary
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Seafloor Spreading
Definition
Introduction
The Revolution
Ridge Axis Geometry, Morphology, and Crustal Formation
Hydrothermal Vents
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Sedimentary Basins
Definition
Basin Types
Basin-Forming Mechanisms
Conceptual Models of Basin Formation
The Configuration of the Sediment Fill
The Configuration of the Crust Beneath Sedimentary Basins
The Configuration of the Mantle Lithosphere
Heat Flow in Sedimentary Basins
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic Data Acquisition and Processing
Definition
Introduction
Seismic Data Acquisition
Seismic Sources
Seismic Receivers
Seismic Recorder
Acquisition Geometry
Seismic Data Processing
Introduction
Signal vs. Noise
Kinematics of the Seismic Signal (Primaries)
NMO
Dipping Bed
Many Reflectors: Layer-Cake
Velocities in Seismics
NMO Stretch
Semblance: A Measure of Signal Alignment
Velocity: Processing Point of View
Amplitude Changes along the Propagation Path
Geometrical Spreading
Absorption
Energy Partitioning at Interfaces
Waveforms: Convolution, Deconvolution
Convolutional Model of the Seismic Trace
Deconvolution as Inverse Filtering
Wavelet Processing
Deterministic Deconvolution
Statistical Deconvolution
The Processing Flow: Putting it all Together
Preprocessing
Prestack Processing
Poststack Processing: Positioning Properly
No-Stack Processing: Imaging Complex Structures
Special Processing
Some Recent Developments
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic Diffraction
Definition
Introduction
Diffraction Theories
Geometrical Theory of Diffraction
Kirchhoff Approximation
Perturbation Theory: Born and Rytov Approximation
Numerical Methods Used to Compute Diffraction Wavefield
An Example of Seismic Diffraction from a Single Fracture
Diffraction Tomography
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic Discontinuities in the Transition Zone
Definition
Mineral Physics Data on the Phase Transitions in the TZ
Seismic Methods
Topography and Sharpness of TZ Discontinuities
The Issue of Water in the TZ
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic Hazard
Definition
Introduction
Cornell-McGuire PSHA Methodology
Estimation of Seismic Source Parameters
Numerical Computation of PSHA
Deaggregation of Seismic Hazard
Modifications of Cornell-McGuire PSHA Procedure and Alternative Models
Source-Free PSHA Procedures
Alternative Earthquake Recurrence Models
Ground Motion Models
Uncertainties in PSHA
Logic Tree
Controversy
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic Imaging, Overview
Definition
Inversion Theory
Five Types of Seismic Imaging Methods
Migration
Least Squares Migration
Full Waveform Inversion
Wave Equation Traveltime Inversion
Migration Velocity Analysis
Recent Advances in Seismic Imaging
Multiscale Waveform Inversion
Phase-Encoded Multisource Waveform Inversion
Current Status and Future of Seismic Imaging
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic Instrumentation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Requirements for Instruments
Inertial Seismometers: Basic Principles
Mechanical Design
Electronic Design
Calibration
Installation
Displacement Seismometry Using Satellites
Deformation Seismometers
Seismic Data Recording
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic Microzonation
Definition
Introduction
Methodology
Example 1: Seismic Microzonation Based on Geomorphological Classification Maps
Example 2: Seismic Microzonation Based on Dense Borehole Data and GIS
Example 3: Seismic Microzonation Based on Microtremor Measurements
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic Monitoring of Nuclear Explosions
Definition
Introduction
Basic Properties of Earthquake and Explosion Signals
The Different Steps in Explosion Monitoring
Detection
Association
Location
Methods of Identification
Yield Estimation
Special Events
Evasion
Event Detection Capability of the International Monitoring System
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic Noise
Definition
Introduction
Types of Seismic Noise
Enhancing Signal Over Noise
Use of Noise as Signal
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic Phase Nomenclature: The IASPEI Standard
Definition
Introduction
Standard Letters, Signs, and Syntax Used for Describing Seismic Phases
Capital Letters
Exceptions
Lowercase Letters and Signs
Syntax of Generating Complex Phase Names
Examples for Creating Complex Standard Phase Names
Refracted and Converted Refracted Wave
Pure Reflected Waves
Reflected Waves with Conversion at the Reflection Point
Ray-Path Diagrams for Some of the IASPEI Standard Phases
IASPEI Standard Seismic Phase List
Crustal Phases
Mantle Phases
Core Phases
Near-Source Surface Reflections and Conversions (Depth Phases)
Surface Waves
Acoustic Phases
Amplitude Measurements
Unidentified Arrivals
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic Properties of Rocks
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Measurement Techniques
Rock Velocities
Velocity Anisotropy
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic Quiescence and Activation
Definition
Introduction
Main Phases of Seismic Quiescence and Activation
Physical Mechanisms Leading to Seismic Quiescence and Activation
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic Ray Theory
Definition
Introduction
Basic Equations of the Seismic Ray Method
Eikonal Equation. Polarization Vector
Ray Tracing and Travel-Time Computation
Transport Equation. Computation of Ray-Theory Amplitudes
Dynamic Ray Tracing. Paraxial Approximations
Coupling Ray Theory for S Waves in Anisotropic Media
Effects of Structural Interfaces
Ray-Theory Elastodynamic Green Function
Chaotic Rays. Lyapunov Exponents
Ray Perturbation Methods
Ray Perturbation Method for Weakly Dissipative Media
Concluding Remarks. Applications, Modifications, and Extensions of the Ray Method
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Seismic Reservoir Characterization
Definition
Introduction
Seismic Data Processing
Seismic-Well Tie
Seismic Rock Physics
Seismic Inversion for Reservoir Properties
Applications of Machine Learning Methods in Reservoir Characterization
Summary
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Seismic Seiches
Definition
Bibliography
Seismic Signals in Well Water Observations
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Co- and Post-seismic Signals
Transient Signals
Preseismic Signals
Mechanisms
Summary
Bibliography
Seismic Stereotomography
Synonyms
Definition
History
Data and Model in Slope Tomography
Applications of Slope Tomography
Challenges and Perspectives
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic Structure at Mid-Ocean Ridges
Definition
Introduction
Mantle Structure
Crustal Structure
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic Tomography
Definition
History
Onset Times
Model Parameterization and Inversion
Normal Modes and Surface Waves
Finite-Frequency Tomography
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic Velocity and Temperature Relationships
Definition
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Seismic Viscoelastic Attenuation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
How Do Seismic Waves Attenuate?
Geometric Spreading
Intrinsic Viscoelastic Attenuation
Scattering Attenuation
Linear Viscoelasticity
Rheology
Anelastic Hysteresis
Q and Complex Velocity
The Q-1(ω) Relaxation Spectrum
Velocity Dispersion
Effects of Scattering
Equivalent Medium
Stochastic Dispersion
Effects of Anisotropy
Measurement and Modeling Attenuation
The Attenuation Operator for Body Waves
Free Oscillations and Surface Waves
Numerical Modeling
Interpretation of Attenuation Measurements in the Earth
Shear Versus Bulk Attenuation
Frequency Dependence
Thermal Activation
Regional Variations
Strain Dependence
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic Wave Propagation in Real Media: Numerical Modeling Approaches
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Direct Methods
Finite Difference Method
Anisotropy
Pseudospectral Method
Finite Element and Spectral Element Methods
Discontinuous Galerkin Method
Integral Equation Methods
Fast Multipole Method in Elastodynamics
Analytic Solutions for Nonhomogeneous Media
Equivalent Media Theories
Asymptotic Ray Tracing Methods
Poroelastic and Thermoelastic Media
Boundaries
Summary
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Seismic Waves, Scattering
Definition
Introduction
Statistical Description of the Earth
The Coherent and Incoherent Fields
The Propagation Regimes
Analysis of Transmission Fluctuations
Envelope Modeling: Markov Approximation
Envelope Modeling: Radiative Transfer
Global-Scale Scattering
Interferometry with Scattered Waves
Green Function Retrieval
Monitoring Temporal Variations
Summary
Bibliography
Seismic Zonation
Definition
Introduction
Methodology
Example: Seismic Zonation Map of China (2001)
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic, Ambient Noise Correlation
Definition
Introduction
Theoretical Basis for the Interpretation of Noise Records at Two Stations
Applications in Seismology
Noise Source Origin and Distribution
Noise-based Seismic imaging
Noise-based Monitoring
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic, Artificial Intelligence to Neural Intelligence for Advanced Interpretation
Definition
Introduction: A Motivation for Automating Interpretation
Examples of Meta-attributes
Example 1: Thinned Fault Cube (TFC) Meta-attribute
Example 2: Intrusion Cube (IC) Meta-attribute
Example 3: Sill Cube (SC) Meta-attribute
Example 4: Fluid Cube (FC) Meta-attribute
Example 5: Mass Transport Deposit Cube (MTDC) Meta-attribute
Conclusion
Bibliography
Seismic, Migration
Synonyms
Definition
History
Mapping Using Pencil and Paper: Mechanical Migration
Digital Migration
Poststack Migration
Prestack Migration
2-D, 3-D, Wide-Azimuth 3-D Acquisition, and Migration
Deep Crustal Imaging
Time Migration, Depth Migration
Purposes of Migration
Structural Imaging
Velocity Estimation
Migrated Amplitude Analysis for Rock Property Determination
Imaging Conditions
Isochron Imaging
Poststack Migration: Exploding Reflector Model
Reflected Wavefield Amplitude Normalized by Source Wavefield Amplitude
Deconvolution and Cross-Correlation Imaging Conditions
Migration Techniques
Integral (Kirchhoff) Migration
Practical Considerations in Kirchhoff´s Migration
Dip Limits
Velocity Field
Beam Migration
One-Way Wave-Equation Migration (OWEM)
Finite-Difference Migration
Depth Step
Frequency-Wave Number (f-k) Migration
Stolt Stretch Factor
Two-Way Wave-Equation Migration (Reverse-Time Migration)
Migration Examples
The Evolving Role of Migration in Seismic Data Processing
Selection of Migration Algorithm
Some Aspects of Migration
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic, Receiver Function Technique
Synonyms
Definition
Receiver Function Technique
Separation of P and S Waves
Deconvolution
Moveout Correction and Summation
CCP Stack and Migration
Waveform Modeling
Two Data Examples
New Technical Development of the S-Receiver Function Method
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic, Reflectivity Method
Synonyms
Definition
The Reflectivity Method
Introduction
Plane Waves
Simple Plane Wave Synthetics
Theory
Computational Issues
Applications
Extension to Laterally Heterogeneous Media
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismic, Super-Virtual Refraction Interferometry
Definition
Introduction
Virtual Refraction Interferometry
Super-Virtual Refraction Interferometry (SVI)
SVI in Practice
Iterative Super-Virtual Refraction Interferometry
Very Noisy Data
Summary
Bibliography
Seismic, Velocity, and Density Relationships
Definition
General Relation Between Velocity and Density
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Seismic, Waveform Modeling and Tomography
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Waveform Modeling
Inverse Method
Shot-Encoded Waveform Tomography
The Restarted L-BFGS Algorithm
Preprocessing for Field Data Waveform Tomography
Seismic Reflection Waveform Tomography
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismicity, Intraplate
Definition
Historical Context
Definitions and Classification
Reasons to Distinguish Intraplate Earthquakes
Do Intraplate and Interplate Earthquakes Scale Differently?
What Drives Intraplate Earthquakes?
Examples
Controversy
Summary or Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismicity, Subduction Zone
Definition
Introduction
Interplate Earthquakes
Trench-Outer Rise Intraplate Earthquakes
Shallow Inland Intraplate Earthquakes
Intraslab Earthquakes
Intermediate-Depth Earthquakes
Deep Earthquakes
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismogram Interpretation
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Crustal Waves: Recording Distances 0-10
Body Waves Traversing the Mantle: Recording Distances 10-103
Body Waves Traversing the Core: Recording Distances 103 and Beyond
Body Waves from Intermediate-Focus and Deep-Focus Earthquakes
Surface Waves
Volcanic Earthquakes and Unusual Seismic Sources
Conclusions
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismological Networks
Definition
Introduction
Global Seismic Networks
Worldwide Standardized Seismograph Network
International Federation of Digital Seismograph Networks
International Monitoring System
Regional Seismic Networks
Euro-Med Region
United States
China
Large-Scale Arrays
International Registry of Seismograph Stations
Summary
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Seismology and Environment
Definition
Introduction
Broadband Seismic Noise
Continuous Monitoring of the Earth Environment
Spatiotemporally Localized Events
Glacial Earthquakes
Cyclones (Hurricanes-Typhoons)
Landslides
New Challenges
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismology, Global Earthquake Model
Definition
Introduction
The GEM Initiative
The GEM Foundation
Scientific Framework
Institutional Framework
Milestones and Scientific Products
The Global Earthquake Model
Global Earthquake Hazard
Global Earthquake Risk
Global Social Vulnerability and Integrated Risk Map
Software and Analysis Tools
OpenQuake Engine and Built-In Toolkits
Interactive Global Earthquake Map Viewer Tool
OpenQuake Platform
Integrated Risk Modeling Toolkit (IRMT)
Building Taxonomy
Building Classification Survey
Inventory Data Capture Tools (IDCT)
Global Databases
Global Instrumental Earthquake Catalogue (1900-2009)
Global Historical Earthquake Catalogue and Archive (1000-1903)
Updated Active Fault Database
Updated Vulnerability Database
Global Exposure Database (GED4GEM and GED4ALL)
Current Status
Future Program
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
GEM Foundation Website
GEM OpenQuake Website
Github Website
Google Apps Website
UNDRR Website
ISC Website
IASPEI Website
QGIS Website
Seismology, Monitoring of CTBT
Definition
Introduction
Evaluation and Design of the Seismic Monitoring System: A Systems Engineering Perspective
Advances in Seismology, Potentially Relevant to CTBT Monitoring
``Forensic Seismology´´: Evidences and Judgments
Concluding Remarks: Interaction Between Science and CTBT Monitoring
Cross-References
Bibliography
Seismology, Rotational
Definition
Introduction
Early Attempts in Studying Rotational Motions
Measuring Rotational Motions
Large Ring Laser Gyros
G Ring Laser and Recording Teleseisms
Strong-Motion Inertial Angular Sensors
Discussions
Linear and Nonlinear Elasticity
Near-Field Seismology
Using Explosions to Study Rotational Motions
Processing Collocated Measurements of Translations and Rotations
Conclusion
Cross-References
Bibliography
Sentinel Satellites Initiate New Era in Earth Observatories
The Sentinel Satellites
Sentinels and Landsat
Free and Open Access to Data
Widening the Market and the Access to Data
Financial Challenges
Shear-Wave Splitting: New Geophysics and Earthquake Stress-Forecasting
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Fundamental Features of Shear-Wave Splitting in the Crust
Classes of Anisotropic Symmetry and Shear-Wave Splitting
Cusps
Shear-Wave Window
Shear-Wave Singularities
Sources of Shear-Wave Splitting
Shear-Wave Splitting in the Upper Mantle
Shear-Wave Splitting in Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
Shear-Wave Splitting Above Small Earthquakes
The New Geophysics
Stress-Forecasting Earthquakes
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Single and Multichannel Seismics
Definition
Introduction
Single-Channel Seismics
Multichannel Seismics
Commonly Used High-Resolution Single- and Multichannel Seismic Sources
Processing Considerations for High-Resolution Single- and Multichannel Seismic Profiles
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Slow Earthquake
Definition
Early Studies on Slow and Silent Earthquake
Long-Term Slow Slip Events
Low-Frequency Tremor and Short-Term Slow Slip
Pre-Seismic Slip
Scaling Relation
Mechanism of Slow Earthquake
Concluding Remarks
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Spherical Harmonic Analysis Applied to Potential Fields
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction: Basic Formulas
Boundary Value Problems (BVP) of Potential Theory
Spherical Harmonic Analysis (SHA): Numerical Techniques
Practical Aspects
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Statistical Seismology
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Empirical Relations
Precursors
Stochastic Models of Earthquake Occurrence
Physics-Based Models
Testing of Forecasting Methods
Operational Earthquake Forecasting
Conclusion
Cross-References
Bibliography
Subduction Zones
Definition
Introduction
Morphology and Nomenclature
Outer Rise, Trench, and Forearc
Thrust Zone
Kinematics
Thermal Structure, Plate Buoyancy, Mantle Flow
Fate of the Downgoing Plate: Devolatilization and Metamorphism
Subduction Channel
Melting and the Volcanic Arc
Seismic Imaging of the Subduction Zone
Subduction Zone Hazards
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Surface Waves
Definition
Group and Phase Velocity
Surface Wave Generation and Propagation
Structure Studies Using Surface Waves
Fundamental Mode Studies (Dispersion)
Noise Cross-Correlation Methodology
Global Studies of Structure Using Surface Waves
Inversion of Surface Wave Dispersion Data
Crustal Corrections
Inversion Using Overtones
Time Domain Surface Wave Inversions
Effects of Scattering and the Born Approximation
Upper Mantle Anisotropy from Surface Wave Studies
Surface Wave Attenuation
Source Studies Using Surface Waves
The Earth´s Background Noise Spectrum: Hum and Microseisms
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
T
T Waves
Definition and Introduction
Sources of T Waves
Human Perception
Use in Comprehensive Nuclear-Test Ban Treaty Monitoring
Acoustic Thermometry of Ocean Climate
Quantification
A Few Geophysical Applications
Conclusion
Cross-References
Bibliography
Tectonic Geomorphology
Definition
Tectonically Generated First-Order (103-102 Km Scale) Landscapes
Transform Settings
Convergent Settings
Divergent Settings
Signatures of Morphotectonic Landscapes
Direct Evidences
Geomorphic Markers of Transform Setting
Geomorphic Markers of Divergent Setting
Geomorphic Markers of Convergent Setting
Geomorphic Markers in Multiple Settings
Indirect Evidences
Geomorphic Indices
Tectonic Geomorphology and Paleoseismological Studies of Tectonic-Landforms
Global Case Studies
Summary
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Thermal Storage and Transport Properties of Rocks, I: Heat Capacity and Latent Heat
Synonyms
Definition
Thermal Storage Properties
Heat Capacity
Isobaric and Isochoric Specific Heat Capacity
Measuring Techniques
Calculated Heat Capacity
Temperature Dependence
Volumetric Heat Capacity: Thermal Capacity
Latent Heat
Summary
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Thermal Storage and Transport Properties of Rocks, II: Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity
Synonyms
Definition
General Remark
Thermal Conductivity
Measuring Techniques
Indirect Methods
Thermal Conductivity of Minerals and Rocks
Radiative Thermal Conductivity
Variation with Temperature
Variation with Pressure
Variation with Other Factors
Thermal Diffusivity
Measuring Techniques
Variation with Temperature
Variation with Pressure
Variation with Other Factors
Summary
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Time-Dependent Seismic Hazard Assessment
Definition
Time-Dependent Seismic Hazard
Time-Dependent Seismic Hazard: Practical Tools and Case Examples of Application
Conclusions and Discussion
Cross-References
Bibliography
Time-Reversal in Seismology
Definition
History
Time-Reversal Before Modern Electronics
Modern Time-Reversal
Location of Seismic Sources
Related Seismic Methods
Time-Reversal and Complexity
Summary
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
TOPO-EUROPE: From the Deep Earth to the Surface of Continental Europe and Its Margins
Definition
Introduction
Deep Earth
Lithosphere Structure
Mantle-Lithosphere Interactions
Sedimentary Basins and Geo-Resources
Analogue Tectonic Modeling
Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Total Electron Content in Seismo-ionospheric Studies
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Methodology for Estimating Total Electron Content (TEC) from GPS Data
Propagation Characteristics of CIDs
Amplitudes of CID
Propagation Speed of CIDs
Directivity of CID Propagation
Dip-slip Verus Strike-slip Earthquakes
Preseismic Ionospheric Anomalies
Influence of Equatorial Ionization Anomaly on CID
Absence of CIDs
Applications of CIDs in Ionospheric Seismology
Summary
Cross-References
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Tracking Earth´s Water in Motion from Satellite Gravity Observations
Introduction
GRACE Satellite Gravimetry
Quantifying Mass Change Using GRACE Gravity Solutions
Monitoring Land Water Cycle Using GRACE
Monitoring Ice and Ocean Mass Change Using GRACE
Summary
Bibliography
Trans-European Suture Zone
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Geologic-Tectonic Overview
Geophysical Signature of TESZ
Crustal Profile
Gravity and Magnetic Signature
Crustal Structure from Seismic Data
Lithospheric Mantle in TESZ
Conclusions
Bibliography
Traveltime Tomography Using Controlled-Source Seismic Data
Synonyms
Definition
Background
Forward Modeling
Traveltime Tomography and Inverison
Algorithms
Model Assessment
More Examples
Future
Cross-References
Bibliography
Tsunami
Definition
Tsunami = Killer Wave?
Tsunami Characteristics
Tsunami Period, Velocity, and Wavelength
Tsunami Eigenfunctions
Tsunami Excitation
Tsunami Excitation by Earthquakes
Tsunami Excitation from Submarine Landslides
Tsunami Excitation from Impacts
Tsunami Propagation
Tsunami Shoaling and Run-up
Tsunami Samples
Tsunami Forecasting
Summary
Cross-References
Tsunami Watch and Warning Centers
Definition
Introduction
Types of Tsunamis
Regional Tsunami Warning Systems
Key Components of a Tsunami Warning Center
Observation Network
Seismic Network
Sea Level Network
Tsunami Forecast Modeling
Pre-run Model Scenario Database
Inundation Modeling and Mapping
Real-Time Tsunami Modeling for Propagation and Inundation
Communication Infrastructure
Decision Support System
Typical Bulletins Issued by TWCs
Service Levels
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
Bibliography
Tsunami: Bay of Bengal
Definition
Introduction
Tsunami Hazard in the Bay of Bengal
Plate Motion Along the Northern Sunda Arc
Seismicity of the Northern Sunda Arc Region and Tsunami Hazard
Indo-Burmese Arc
Irrawaddy Region
Andaman Sumatra Arc Region
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
U
Uncertainties in Geomodelling Related to Geophysical Inversion
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Uncertainty
Error and Accuracy
Sensitivity
Uncertainties in the Transformations of Earth Science Problems into a Mathematical Model: Reasoning Behind Modeling and Basic ...
Reduction and Simplicity Concepts in Geosciences
Interface Representations as Reduction of Reality
Scale and Typical Representations
Considerations of Complexity
Mathematical Models of Interfaces
General Interface Description
Map-Based Interpolation Approaches
Explicit and Implicit 3-D Interpolations
Uncertainty in the Detection of Model Interfaces by Geological and Geophysical Methods
As Model Describing Initial State
Joint Inverse Frameworks
Uncertainties in the Output of Material Parameters
Relevance of Rock Physics Models
Visualization of Uncertainties as Output of Density Models: An Example from the Central Andes
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Unified Scaling Law for Earthquakes that Generalizes the Fundamental Gutenberg-Richter Relationship
Definition
Introduction
Unified Scaling Law for Earthquakes
Conclusion
Cross-References
Bibliography
V
Vertical Seismic Profiling
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Acquisition Techniques
VSP Applications
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Very Long Baseline Interferometry
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Methods and Techniques in Very Long Baseline Interferometry
Physical Principles
Data Calibration and Imaging
VLBI Networks
Geodetic and Geophysical Applications
Reference Systems and Tectonics
Earth Rotation
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
W
Wavelet Analysis
Synonyms
Definition
Introduction
Continuous Wavelet Transform
The Inversion Formula
Use of the Physical Frequency
Wavelets
Wavelet Spectrum Amplitude and Phase
Prograde and Retrograde Wavelet Spectrum
Discrete Wavelet Transform
Use of Wavelets in Geophysical Time-Series Analysis
Instantaneous Parameters
Polarization Analysis
Dispersion Analysis
Summary
Cross-References
Bibliography
Author Index
Subject Index
